The exploitation of solar energy, an unlimited and renewable energy resource, is of prime interest to support the replacement of fossil fuels by renewable energy alternatives. Solar energy can be used via concentrated solar power (CSP) combined with thermochemical energy storage (TCES) for the conversion and storage of concentrated solar energy via reversible solid–gas reactions, thus enabling round the clock operation and continuous production. Research is on-going on efficient and economically attractive TCES systems at high temperatures with long-term durability and performance stability. Indeed, the cycling stability with reduced or no loss in capacity over many cycles of heat charge and discharge of the material is pursued. The main thermochemical systems currently investigated are encompassing metal oxide redox pairs (MOx/MOx−1), non-stoichiometric perovskites (ABO3/ABO3−δ), alkaline earth metal carbonates and hydroxides (MCO3/MO, M(OH)2/MO with M = Ca, Sr, Ba). The metal oxides/perovskites can operate in open loop with air as the heat transfer fluid, while carbonates and hydroxides generally require closed loop operation with storage of the fluid (H2O or CO2). Alternative sources of natural components are also attracting interest, such as abundant and low-cost ore minerals or recycling waste. For example, limestone and dolomite are being studied to provide for one of the most promising systems, CaCO3/CaO. Systems based on hydroxides are also progressing, although most of the recent works focused on Ca(OH)2/CaO. Mixed metal oxides and perovskites are also largely developed and attractive materials, thanks to the possible tuning of both their operating temperature and energy storage capacity. The shape of the material and its stabilization are critical to adapt the material for their integration in reactors, such as packed bed and fluidized bed reactors, and assure a smooth transition for commercial use and development. The recent advances in TCES systems since 2016 are reviewed, and their integration in solar processes for continuous operation is particularly emphasized.

Recent Advances in Thermochemical Energy Storage via Solid–Gas Reversible Reactions at High Temperature

Hydrogen is the most environmentally friendly and cleanest fuel that has the potential to supply most of the world's energy in the future, replacing the present fossil fuel-based energy infrastructure. Hydrogen is expected to solve the problem of energy shortages in the near future, especially in complex geographical areas (hills, arid plateaus, etc.) and harsh climates (desert, ice, etc.). Thus, in this report, we present a current status of achievable hydrogen fuel based on various scopes, including production methods, storage and transportation techniques, the global market, and the future outlook. Its objectives include analyzing the effectiveness of various hydrogen generation processes and their effects on the economy, society, and environment. These techniques are contrasted in terms of their effects on the environment, manufacturing costs, energy use, and energy efficiency. In addition, hydrogen energy market trends over the next decade are also discussed. According to numerous encouraging recent advancements in the field, this review offers an overview of hydrogen as the ideal renewable energy for the future society, its production methods, the most recent storage technologies, and transportation strategies, which suggest a potential breakthrough towards a hydrogen economy. All these changes show that this is really a profound revolution in the development process of human society and has been assessed as having the same significance as the previous industrial revolution. 

The current status of hydrogen energy: an overview

Abstract China is committed to the targets of achieving peak CO 2 emissions around 2030 and realizing carbon neutrality around 2060. To realize carbon neutrality, people are seeking to replace fossil fuel with renewable energy. Thermal energy storage is the key to overcoming the intermittence and fluctuation of renewable energy utilization. In this paper, the relation between renewable energy and thermal energy storage is first addressed. Then, the classifications of thermal energy storage and Carnot batteries are given. The aim of this review is to provide an insight into the promising thermal energy storage technologies for the application of renewable energy in order to realize carbon neutrality. Three types of heat storage methods, especially latent heat storage and thermochemical heat storage, are analyzed in detail. The application of thermal energy storage is influenced by many heat storage properties, such as temperature range, heat storage capacity, cost, stability, and technical readiness. Therefore, the heat storage properties for different heat storage technologies are reviewed and compared. The advantage and challenge of different heat storage technologies and Carnot batteries for carbon neutrality processes are analyzed. Finally, the prospects of different heat storage technologies are summarized. 

Progress in thermal energy storage technologies for achieving carbon neutrality

Evaluation of Thermochemical Energy Storage Performance of Fe-/Mn-Doped, Zr-Stabilized, CaO-Based Composites under Different Thermal Energy Storage Modes

This study assessed the most pertinent themes connected to hydrogen fuel cells and vehicles through a bibliometric analysis to thoroughly understand hydrogen fuel cell and vehicle technologies and comprehend the focus of current and future research directions. This study chose the Scopus database, which is considered the largest database containing pertinent documents for bibliometric analysis. A total of 3107 relevant documents were retrieved between the period of 2003 and 2023 and analyzed using visualization tools like the Biblioshiny package in R and the VOSviewer software. According to the analyses, the study involved 724 authors, 15% international co-authorship, 3.74 global co-authors per document, 5463 keywords, and 21.24 citations per document. Research trends related to deploying and optimizing various technologies, such as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, refueling stations, and machine learning for energy management, are the most evident themes in the most recent 2022–2023 period. The study identified some research gaps on the topic and recommended them as future research potentials. 

A review of the trends, evolution, and future research prospects of hydrogen fuel cells – A focus on vehicles

Energy storage is one of the key challenges in our society to enable a transition to renewable energy sources. The endothermic decomposition of limestone into lime and CO2 is one of the most cost-effective energy storage systems but it significantly degrades on repeated energy cycling (to below 10% capacity). This study presents the first CaCO3 system operating under physical conditions that mimic a real-life ‘thermal battery’ over an extended cycling life. These important results demonstrate that a thermal energy storage device based on CaCO3 will be suitable for a range of applications, e.g. concentrated solar power plants, wind farms, photovoltaics, and excess grid energy. The operating temperature of 900 °C ensures a higher Carnot efficiency than state-of-the-art technologies at a fraction of the material cost. The capacity degradation of pure CaCO3 as a function of calcination/carbonation cycling is overcome by the addition of either ZrO2 (40 wt%) or Al2O3 (20 wt%), which results in 500 energy storage cycles at over 80% capacity. The additives result in the formation of ternary compounds, e.g. CaZrO3 and Ca5Al6O14, which restrict sintering and allow for the transmission of Ca2+ and O2− ions to reaction sites.

Inexpensive thermochemical energy storage utilising additive enhanced limestone

As the need for renewable energy is heightened, energy storage and distribution solutions must be developed. Hydrogen is an abundant energy source with the highest gravimetric energy density of all...

Chemical Compression and Transport of Hydrogen using Sodium Borohydride

Li-ion batteries have held the dominant position in battery research for the last 30+ years. However, due to inadequate resources and the cost of necessary elements (e.g., lithium ore) in addition to safety issues concerning the components and construction, it has become more important to look at alternative technologies. Multivalent metal batteries with solid-state electrolytes are a potential option for future battery applications. The synthesis and characterisation of divalent hydrated closo-monocarborane salts - Mg[CB11H12]2·xH2O, Ca[CB11H12]2·xH2O, and Zn[CB11H12]2·xH2O - have shown potential as solid-state electrolytes. The coordination of a solvent (e.g. H2O) to the cation in these complexes shows a significant improvement in ionic conductivity, i.e. for Zn[CB11H12]2·xH2O dried at 100 °C (10-3 S cm-1 at 170 °C) and dried at 150 °C (10-5 S cm-1 at 170 °C). Solvent choice also proved important with the ionic conductivity of Mg[CB11H12]2·3en (en = ethylenediamine) being higher than that of Mg[CB11H12]2·3.1H2O (2.6 × 10-5 S cm-1 and 1.7 × 10-8 S cm-1 at 100 °C, respectively), however, the oxidative stability was lower (<1 V (Mg2+/Mg) and 1.9 V (Mg2+/Mg), respectively). Thermal characterisation of the divalent closo-monocarborane salts showed melting and desolvation, prior to high temperature decomposition.

Divalent closo-monocarborane solvates for solid-state ionic conductors.

Correction to “Thermochemical Formation of Sodium Borohydride from Sodium Tetramethoxyborate”

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Inexpensive thermochemical energy storage utilising additive enhanced limestone

Chemical Compression and Transport of Hydrogen using Sodium Borohydride

Divalent closo-monocarborane solvates for solid-state ionic conductors.

Correction to “Thermochemical Formation of Sodium Borohydride from Sodium Tetramethoxyborate”