Closer objects are invariably perceived as bigger than farther ones and are therefore easier to detect and discriminate. This is so deeply grounded in our daily experience that no question has been raised as to whether the advantage for near objects depends on other features (e.g., depth itself). In a series of five experiments ( N = 114), we exploited immersive virtual environments and visual illusions (i.e., Ponzo) to probe humans' perceptual abilities in depth and, specifically, in the space closely surrounding our body, termed peripersonal space. We reversed the natural distance scaling of size in favor of the farther object, which thus appeared bigger, to demonstrate a persistent shape-discrimination advantage for close objects. Psychophysical modeling further suggested a sigmoidal trend for this benefit, mirroring that found for multisensory estimates of peripersonal space. We argue that depth is a fundamental, yet overlooked, dimension of human perception and that future studies in vision and perception should be depth aware.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797618795679

Mind the Depth: Visual Perception of Shapes Is Better in Peripersonal Space.

Recent studies have revealed structural and functional abnormalities in amygdala due to Internet addiction (IA) associated with emotional disturbance. However, the role of amygdala connectivity that is responsible for emotion-cognition interactions is largely unknown in IA. This study aims to explore the amygdala connectivity abnormalities in IA. The functional and structural connectivity of bilateral amygdala were examined using seed-based connectivity analysis, and the structural integrity on white mater tracts passing through amygdala was also examined. Additionally, a correlation analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between brain connectivity and duration of IA. We found that IA subjects had decreased negative functional connectivity (FC) between amygdala and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and had increased negative FC between amygdala and precuneus and superior occipital gyrus (SOG). While IA subjects had decreased positive FC between amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and had increased positive FC between amygdala and thalamus. The FC between left amygdala and right DLPFC had significant correlation with duration of IA. The structural connectivity and integrity between amygdala and ACC were also decreased in IA subjects. These findings indicate that the amygdala connectivity is altered in IA subjects. The altered FC of amygdala-DLPFC is associated with duration of IA.

/pdf/alterations-in-amygdala-connectivity-in-internet-addiction-12taezm4dc.pdf

Alterations in Amygdala Connectivity in Internet Addiction Disorder.

Abstract This article discusses the development and application of virtual environments (VEs) in the domain of exercise as well as research in recreational and high-performance sports. A special focus is put on the use of virtual characters (VCs). For its elaboration, the following criteria parameters were chosen: scene content and the role of the VC, output device, kind of additional feedback, level of expertise of the tested participants, kind of user’s movement (reaction), kind of the visualization of the user’s body, kind of study and kind of evaluation. We explored the role of VCs embodying virtual opponents, teammates, or coaches in sports. We divided these VCs in passive and autonomous characters. Passive VCs are not affected by the user, whereas autonomous VCs adapt autonomously to the user’s movements and positions. We identified 44 sport related VEs, thereof 22 each in the domain of recreational sports and high-performance sports: of the identified 44 VEs, 19 VEs are without VC, 20 VEs with passive VCs, and 5 VEs with autonomous VCs. We categorized studies examining expert athletes in high-performance sports as well as studies analyzing novices, beginners or advanced athletes in recreational sports. Nevertheless, all identified systems are suitable for athletes of recreational and high-performance level

/pdf/using-several-types-of-virtual-characters-in-sports-a-315vmxx0g0.pdf

Using Several Types of Virtual Characters in Sports - a Literature Survey

Allocation of attention across different depth planes is a prerequisite for visual selection in a three-dimensional environment. Previous research showed that participants successfully used stereoscopic depth information to focus their attention. This, however, does not mean that salient information from other depth planes is completely neglected. The present study investigated the question of whether competing visual information is differentially processed when displayed in a single depth plane or across two different depth planes. Moreover, it was of interest whether potential effects were further modulated by the items' relative spatial position (near or far). In three experiments participants performed a variant of the additional singleton paradigm. Targets were defined by stereoscopic depth information and as such appeared either in a near or far depth plane. Distractor stimuli were displayed in the same or in the opposed depth plane. The results consistently showed that visual selection was slower when target and distractor coincided within the same depth plane. There was no general advantage for targets presented in near or far depth planes. However, differential effects of target depth plane and the target-distractor relation were observed. Selection of near targets was more affected by distractors within the same depth plane while far targets were identified more slowly when the amount of information in closer depth planes increased. While attentional resources could not be exclusively centered to a distinct depth plane, the allocation of attention might be organized along an egocentric gradient through space and varies with the organization of the visual surrounding.

/pdf/allocation-of-attention-in-3d-space-is-adaptively-modulated-2ea4og68jq.pdf

Allocation of attention in 3D space is adaptively modulated by relative position of target and distractor stimuli

Different visual and auditory latencies affect cross-modal non-spatial repetition inhibition

When attention is oriented to a peripheral cue, the processing of nearby stimuli is facilitated. This brief period of facilitation is followed by a long-lasting inhibitory effect, during which there is a delayed response to stimuli presented at a previously cued location. Although the mechanisms underlying the facilitatory effect of attentional orienting/reorienting in three-dimensional (3-D) space have been documented, there is not yet consensus as to how attention orients/reorients in depth during the later inhibitory phase (i.e., inhibition of return [IOR]). In the present study, by incorporating the Posner exogenous cueing paradigm into a virtual 3-D environment, we aimed to investigate whether an IOR effect occurs when attention orients and reorients at the uncued depth in the same hemispace, and whether the IOR effects are the same or different when attention orients/reorients along different trajectories in 3-D space. Our results showed asymmetrical spatial IOR effects when attention was oriented/reoriented at the uncued depth in the same hemispace. Spatial IOR was depth-specific when targets appeared in the near depth plane, whereas it was not depth-specific when targets appeared in the far depth plane. Apart from these results, we also found that attention oriented/reoriented at the same depth but in a different hemispace experienced a reduction in IOR size, thus indicating that the direction-specific spatial IOR mechanisms when attention orients/reorients along different trajectories are different. Taken together, our results suggest that spatial IOR is not entirely "depth-blind," and that the ecological importance of the 3-D world influences the direction of attentional shifts of spatial IOR in 3-D space.

/pdf/effect-of-different-directions-of-attentional-shift-on-2gkbvgbo8c.pdf

Effect of different directions of attentional shift on inhibition of return in three-dimensional space.

Neuropsychological and functional MRI data suggest that two functionally and anatomically dissociable streams of visual processing exist: a ventral perception-related stream and a dorsal action-related stream. However, relatively little is known about how the two streams interact in the intact brain during the production of adaptive behavior. Using functional MRI and a virtual three-dimensional paradigm, we aimed at examining whether the parieto-occipital junction (POJ) acts as an interface for the integration and processing of information between the dorsal and ventral streams in the near and far space processing. Virtual reality three-dimensional near and far space was defined by manipulating binocular disparity, with -68.76 arcmin crossed disparity for near space and +68.76 arcmin uncrossed disparity for near space. Our results showed that the POJ and bilateral superior occipital gyrus (SOG) showed relative increased activity when responded to targets presented in the near space than in the far space, which was independent of the retinotopic and perceived sizes of target. Furthermore, the POJ showed the enhanced functional connectivity with both the dorsal and ventral streams during the far space processing irrespective of target sizes, supporting that the POJ acts as an interface between the dorsal and ventral streams in disparity-defined near and far space processing. In contrast, the bilateral SOG showed the enhanced functional connectivity only with the ventral stream if retinotopic sizes of targets in the near and far spaces were matched, which suggested there was a functional dissociation between the POJ and bilateral SOG.

/pdf/the-role-of-parieto-occipital-junction-in-the-interaction-2zmi6n4fi0.pdf

The Role of Parieto-Occipital Junction in the Interaction between Dorsal and Ventral Streams in Disparity-Defined Near and Far Space Processing.

The sound-induced flash illusion (SiFI) is a robust auditory-dominated multisensory integration phenomenon that is used as a reliable indicator to assess multisensory integration. Previous studies have indicated that the SiFI effect is correlated with perceptual sensitivity. However, to date, there is no consensus regarding how it corresponds to sensitivity with long-term training. The present study adopted the classic SiFI paradigm with feedback training to investigate the effect of a week of long-term training on the SiFI effect. Both the training group and control group completed a pretest and a posttest before and after the perceptual training; however, only the training group was required to complete 7-day behavioral training. The results showed that (1) long-term training could reduce the response of fission and fusion illusions by improving perceptual sensitivity and that (2) there was a “plateau effect” that emerged during the training stage, which tended to stabilize by the fifth day. These findings demonstrated that the SiFI effect could be modified with long-term training by ameliorating perceptual sensitivity, especially in terms of the fission illusion. Therefore, the present study supplements perceptual training in SiFI domains and provides evidence that the SiFI could be used as an assessment intervention to improve the efficiency of multisensory integration.

Long-term training reduces the responses to the sound-induced flash illusion

It has been well documented how spatial inhibition of return (IOR) interacts with executive functions in a two-dimensional plane, i.e., significantly decreased interference at the cued (inhibited) compared to the uncued location. It remains unknown, however, how spatial IOR interacts with executive functions along the depth dimension of the real 3D world. Here, we adapted the Posner spatial-cuing paradigm into a virtual 3D world. The location-based IOR was orthogonally combined with the flanker effect: The target and its flanker could appear at either the cued or the uncued location in a closer or farther depth plane. Moreover, the flanker effect was differentiated into the pre-response and response levels, and the flankers could appear in the either same (Experiment 1) or different (Experiment 2) depth plane from the target. A simple detection task was also adopted to test the pure effect of how visuospatial attention is prevented from returning previously attended location along the depth dimension. The results showed that there existed significant IOR effects only when target was presented in the farther depth plane. Moreover, significantly reversed response-level conflicts were observed at the cued location in the farther depth plane, indicating that spatial IOR toward the farther depth plane was more than a simple effect of attentional orienting. Rather, the inhibitory tagging mechanism may take place. In addition, orienting to the close depth plane resulted in either a facilitatory or null effect. Accordingly, only the pre-response-level conflict was modulated by attentional orienting to the closer depth plane.

Interaction between spatial inhibition of return (IOR) and executive control in three-dimensional space

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Effect of different directions of attentional shift on inhibition of return in three-dimensional space.

The Role of Parieto-Occipital Junction in the Interaction between Dorsal and Ventral Streams in Disparity-Defined Near and Far Space Processing.

Long-term training reduces the responses to the sound-induced flash illusion

Interaction between spatial inhibition of return (IOR) and executive control in three-dimensional space