Summary Classical biological control remains the only tool available for permanent ecological and economic management of invasive alien species that flourish through absence of their co-evolved natural enemies. As such, this approach is recognized as a key tool for alien species management by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) and the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (ESIAS). Successful classical biological control programmes abound around the world, despite disproportionate attention being given to occasional and predictable non-target impacts. Despite more than 130 case histories in Europe against insect pests, no exotic classical biological control agent has been released in the EU against an alien invasive weed. This dearth has occurred in the face of increasing numbers of exotic invasive plants being imported and taking over National Parks, forests and amenity areas in this region, as well as a global increase in the use of classical biological control around the world. This paper reviews potential European weed targets for classical biological control from ecological and socioeconomic perspectives using the criteria of historical biological control success, taxonomic isolation from European native flora, likely availability of biological control agents, invasiveness outside Europe and value to primary industry and horticulture (potential for conflicts of interest). We also review why classical biological control of European exotic plants remains untested, considering problems of funding and public perception. Finally, we consider the regulatory framework that surrounds such biological control activities within constituent countries of the EU to suggest how this approach may be adopted in the future for managing invasive exotic weeds in Europe.

/pdf/top-20-environmental-weeds-for-classical-biological-control-453vg587ha.pdf

Top 20 environmental weeds for classical biological control in Europe: a review of opportunities, regulations and other barriers to adoption.

Biological Control of Weeds.- 1. The Classical Approach with Plant Pathogens.- 2. The Mycoherbicide Approach with Plant Pathogens.- 3. Nematodes as Biological Control Agents of Weeds.- 4. Options with Plant Pathogens Intended for Classical Control of Range and Pasture Weeds.- Host-Parasite Interactions.- 5. Host-Range Testing: Safety and Science.- 6. Ecology and Epidemiology of Fungal Plant Pathogens Studied as Biological Control Agents of Weeds.- 7. Parasitism, Host Species Specificity, and Gene-Specific Host Cell Death.- Genetic Manipulation of Plant Pathogens.- 8. Perspectives for Biological Engineering of Prokaryotes for Biological Control of Weeds.- 9. Genetic Manipulation of Plant Pathogenic Fungi.- 10. Protoplast Fusion for the Production of Superior Biocontrol Fungi.- Application Technology.- 11. Integration of Biological Control Agents with Chemical Pesticides.- 12. Progress in the Production, Formulation, and Application of Mycoherbicides.- Economic Aspects of Biological Control.- 13. Submerged Fermentation of Biological Herbicides.- 14. Economic Aspects of Biological Weed Control with Plant Pathogens.- Summary.- Contributors.

Microbial control of weeds

Light and scanning electron microscopy as well as histochemical reactions were employed to investigate the leaf structure and secretory activity of an adventive perennial pest that is rapidly dispersing in the Mediterranean region. Interesting structural characteristics, not common among the well-adapted native Mediterranean phanerophytes, were observed. Although ‘unconventional’, these structural characteristics produce an ecologically equivalent, xeromorphic leaf on a plant that proves to be competitive and very efficient under the Mediterranean climatic conditions.

Structural and cytochemical investigation of the leaf of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium), a drought-resistant alien weed of the Greek flora

Silverleaf nightshade is a widespread, deep-rooted, summer-growing perennial that significantly reduces production in Australian crop and pasture systems. It has an extensive root system, which competes both directly and indirectly with summer and winter pastures and crops through depletion of soil moisture and nutrients. Long-distance dispersal of seeds is an important mechanism for its spread and management. A range of experiments was conducted to determine the factors influencing seed production and seedbank dynamics. Seed production ranged from 1,814 to 2,945 m−2. Diurnally fluctuating temperatures of 25/15 C provided the optimal thermal conditions for germination, with germination not affected by light. Osmotic stress reduced germination, with no germination occurring at −1MPa. Germination was reduced to 5% at 160 mM NaCl, suggesting some salt sensitivity. Germination occurred over a pH range of 4 to 10, but declined with increasing acidity. Viability of buried seed declined to around 20% af...

Factors Affecting Silverleaf Nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) Germination

Climate change and invasive plants in South Australia.

A survey of the distribution of the herbivores associated with the weed, Solanum elaeagnifolium, in its native range in Mexico and south-west U.S.A., has been made in relation to climate. The biological control agents considered were: a leaf-galling nematode, Orrina phyllobia; the defoliating cassidine Gratiana pallidula; chrysomelids Leptinotarsa texana and L. defecta, and tingids, Gargaphia spp.; a stem-boring curculionid, Trichobaris texana; a stem-galling cecidomyid species; the fruit-feeding gelechiid, Frumenta nephelomicta; and tephritid Zonosemata vittigera. The results of the survey suggest that the herbivores would not be sufficiently climatically adapted to the summer-drought, cereal-growing areas of southern Australia most heavily infested by the weed, to control it there. They might establish and be useful in areas less heavily infested by the weed in summer rainfall climates and in irrigated crops.

Prospects for the biological control of silver-leaf nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium, in Australia

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Prospects for the biological control of silver-leaf nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium, in Australia