We propose to develop a fast, thin silicon sensor with gain capable to concurrently measure with high precision the space (∼10 μm) and time (∼10 ps) coordinates of a particle. This will open up new application of silicon detector systems in many fields. Our analysis of detector properties indicates that it is possible to improve the timing characteristics of silicon-based tracking sensors, which already have sufficient position resolution, to achieve four-dimensional high-precision measurements. The basic sensor characteristics and the expected performance are listed, the wide field of applications are mentioned and the required R&D topics are discussed.

Ultra-fast silicon detectors

In the last decade significant progress has been made on optical non-contact time-of-flight (ToF) based ranging techniques. Direct implementations based on time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC-dToF), coincidence detection (CD-TCSPC-dToF) as well as multiple indirect realizations based on e.g. single-photon synchronous detection (SPSD-iToF), continuous-wave modulation (CW-iToF) or pulse modulation (PM-iToF) have been presented. All those modulation/demodulation techniques can be employed in scanning (scanning LIDAR) as well as non-scanning (Flash-LIDAR) schemes. Many parameters impact key performance metrics such as depth measurement precision or angular resolution. Unfortunately, publications or datasheets rarely quote all relevant parameters. Thus, benchmarking between different approaches based on published metrics is cumbersome. The authors believe that such a benchmark would have to be founded on modeling in order to ensure fair comparison. This work presents an overview over the most common ToF based depth measurement approaches, how these can be modeled and how they compare.

Benchmarking time-of-flight based depth measurement techniques

Recently, Range Imaging (RIM) cameras have become available that capture high resolution range images at video
rate. Such cameras measure the distance from the scene for each pixel independently based upon a measured time of
flight (TOF). Some cameras, such as the SwissRanger(tm) SR-3000, measure the TOF based on the phase shift of reflected
light from a modulated light source. Such cameras are shown to be susceptible to severe distortions in the measured
range due to light scattering within the lens and camera. Earlier work induced using a simplified Gaussian point spread
function and inverse filtering to compensate for such distortions. In this work a method is proposed for how to identify
and use generally shaped empirical models for the point spread function to get a more accurate compensation. The
otherwise difficult inverse problem is solved by using the forward model iteratively, according to well established
procedures from image restoration. Each iteration is done as a sequential process, starting with the brightest parts of the
image and then moving sequentially to the least bright parts, with each step subtracting the estimated effects from the
measurements. This approach gives a faster and more reliable compensation convergence. An average reduction of the
error by more than 60% is demonstrated on real images. The computation load corresponds to one or two convolutions of
the measured complex image with a real filter of the same size as the image.

/pdf/modelling-and-compensating-measurement-errors-caused-by-2tmaqy3k95.pdf

Modelling and Compensating Measurement Errors Caused by Scattering in Time-Of-Flight Cameras

A review of the literature covering the evolution of amino acid, protein, lipid and carbohydrate analysis in food samples by electromigration techniques over the last 20 years is presented. The manuscript summarizes different modes, including capillary zone electrophoresis, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, capillary electrochromatography, capillary gel electrophoresis, capillary isotachophoresis, non-aqueous (or nonaqueous) capillary electrophoresis, capillary isoelectric focusing and microfluidic chip electrophoresis, employing different detection systems, such as ultraviolet-visible absorption, laser-induced fluorescence, mass spectrometry, amperometric detection, and capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection. Briefly, the present review evidences that CE is a very interesting analytical separation technique for food analysis, offering short analysis times and versatility in a simple sample preparation step as inherent advantages compared to classical chromatographic methodologies, which make it a separation technique that is very attractive for quality control in industry and government agencies.

Analysis of amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids in food by capillary electromigration methods: a review

As a result of the foreseen increase in the luminosity of the Large Hadron Collider, the discrimination between the collision products and possible magnet quench-provoking beam losses of the primary proton beams is becoming more critical for safe accelerator operation. We report the results of ongoing research efforts targeting the upgrading of the monitoring system by exploiting Beam Loss Monitor detectors based on semiconductors located as close as possible to the superconducting coils of the triplet magnets. In practice, this means that the detectors will have to be immersed in superfluid helium inside the cold mass and operate at 1.9 K. Additionally, the monitoring system is expected to survive 20 years of LHC operation, resulting in an estimated radiation fluence of 1×1016 proton/cm2, which corresponds to a dose of about 2 MGy. In this study, we monitored the signal degradation during the in situ irradiation when silicon and single-crystal diamond detectors were situated in the liquid/superfluid helium and the dependences of the collected charge on fluence and bias voltage were obtained. It is shown that diamond and silicon detectors can operate at 1.9 K after 1×1016 p/cm2 irradiation required for application as BLMs, while the rate of the signal degradation was larger in silicon detectors than in the diamond ones. For Si detectors this rate was controlled mainly by the operational mode, being larger at forward bias voltage.

/pdf/in-situ-radiation-test-of-silicon-and-diamond-detectors-517ko8oome.pdf

In situ radiation test of silicon and diamond detectors operating in superfluid helium and developed for beam loss monitoring

This contribution describes the modeling of CMOS image sensors employed in time-of-flight (ToF) sensor systems for 3D ranging applications. Our model relies on the theoretical description of photo-generation, charge transfer including diffusion, fringing field, and self-induced drift (SID). This method makes it possible to calculate the time-dependent charge carrier generation, transfer, and distribution. The employed approach allows elimination not only of irradiance-dependent charge transfer, but also of undesired reflectance effects, and the influence of ambient light through an in-pixel background measurement. Since the sensor is operated with very short integration times it is crucial to accomplish a fast transfer of the generated charge from the photodetector to the sense node, and speedy conversion into an electrical signal at its output. In our case, we employed a lateral drift field photodetector (LDPD), which is basically a pinned photodiode with a built-in drift field formed by a doping gradient. A novel pixel structure is presented which is optimized for a fast charge transfer by the appliance of the shown model. Numerical calculations predict a two times faster charge collection.

Modeling of CMOS image sensors for time-of-flight applications

In this article a model is introduced that describes the charge transfer in pixels of an image sensor. The model is suitable for image sensors where lateral drift field photo detectors were implemented and considers the effects of thermal diffusion, drift due to the built-in potential gradient, and self-induced drift. The analytical result is compared with a numerical solution and confirmed by measurements. With this model it is possible to predict the amount of collected charge at the sense node for very short integration times in comparatively long pixel structures. This is particularly important for indirect time-of-flight applications with CMOS image sensors. This approach enables the optimization of the pixel layout as well as an advanced calibration that might possibly enhance the distance precision. The model can also be applied to image sensors featuring pinned photodiodes.

Modeling of the charge transfer in a lateral drift field photo detector

In this article the development of a newly designed Time-of-Flight (ToF) image sensor for underwater applications is described. The sensor is developed as part of the project UTOFIA (underwater time-of-flight image acquisition) funded by the EU within the Horizon 2020 framework. This project aims to develop a camera based on range gating that extends the visible range compared to conventional cameras by a factor of 2 to 3 and delivers real-time range information by means of a 3D video stream. The principle of underwater range gating as well as the concept of the image sensor are presented. Based on measurements on a test image sensor a pixel structure that suits best to the requirements has been selected. Within an extensive characterization underwater the capability of distance measurements in turbid environments is demonstrated.

UTOFIA: an underwater time-of-flight image acquisition system

Ausfuhrungsbeispiele schaffen eine Pixelstruktur zur optischen Abstandsmessung an einem Objekt mit zumindest einem Pixel, umfassend ein erstes, ein zweites und ein drittes Teilpixel zur Erfassung des Objektbereichs. Jedes der Teilpixel umfasst einen photoaktiven Bereich, einen Speicherknoten und ein Auswerte-Gate, wobei das jeweilige Auswerte-Gate benachbart zu dem jeweiligen Speicherknoten und dem jeweiligen photoaktiven Bereich des jeweiligen Teilpixels gebildet ist und ausgebildet ist, um einen Transport von in dem jeweiligen photoaktiven Bereich erzeugten Ladungstragern aus dem jeweiligen photoaktiven Bereich zu dem jeweiligen Speicherknoten zu steuern.

Pixelstruktur zur optischen Abstandsmessung an einem Objekt und Abstandserfassungssystem mit einer derartigen Pixelstruktur

Optische Distanzmessungen erlangen in jungster Zeit immer grosere Bedeutung. Die Anwendungsgebiete erstrecken sich vom Laser-Entfernungsmesser aus dem Baumarkt uber Gestenerkennung bei Spielkonsolen bis hin zu autonomen Fahrzeugen.
Die in dieser Arbeit eingesetzte Methode zur optischen Distanzbestimmung ist das so genannte pulse-modulated Time-of-Flight-Verfahren (pm ToF). Dabei wird die Zeit bestimmt, die ein ausgesendeter Lichtpuls benotigt, bis er an einem Objekt reflektiert wird und von dort auf einen Sensor trifft. Aus dieser Laufzeit lasst sich die Entfernung zu dem Objekt berechnen.
Es hat sich gezeigt, dass die ermittelte Distanz von der Bestrahlungsstarke abhangt. In der Praxis fuhrt dies zu unterschiedlichen Messergebnissen fur Flachen unterschiedlicher Reflektanz in derselben Entfernung.
Mit Hilfe des in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Modells konnte gezeigt werden, dass dieser Effekt in der bestrahlungsabhangigen Driftgeschwindigkeit der durch den Laserpuls generierten Ladungstrager im Photoaktivgebiet begrundet ist. Die Drift wird uber eine inhomogene, nichtlineare, partielle Differentialgleichung beschrieben und diese fur einige Spezialfalle analytisch gelost.
Darauf aufbauend wird die Bewegung der Ladungstrager ausfuhrlich numerisch untersucht und mit Messergebnissen bestehender Sensoren verglichen. Dabei zeigt sich, dass Simulation und Messung gut ubereinstimmen und der Ladungstransport somit durch das Modell gut beschrieben wird.
Mit den Erkenntnissen des Modells und den Vorhersagen bezuglich der Transferzeit ist es moglich, das Photoaktivgebiet fur einen moglichst schnellen Ladungstransport zu optimieren. Dies wird anhand eines neuen Pixel-Layouts demonstriert, das mit Hilfe des Modells entworfen und anschliesend gefertigt wurde.
Da auch ein optimiertes Pixel die Bestrahlungsabhangigkeit nicht vollstandig eliminieren kann, wird als weitere Anwendung des Modells eine angepasste Kalibrationsmethode vorgestellt. Durch das Modell konnen Korrekturen berechnet werden, die das dynamische Verhalten des Sensors berucksichtigen. Die gemessenen Signale werden hiermit verrechnet und es kann eine deutliche Verbesserung der Distanzmessung erreicht werden.

Modellierung von 3D-Time-of-Flight-Sensoren und -Systemen

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