Although research studies in education show that use of technol- ogy can help student learning, its use is generally affected by certain barriers In this paper, we first identify the general barriers typically faced by K-12 schools, both in the United States as well as other countries, when integrating technology into the curriculum for instructional purposes, namely: (a) resources, (b) institution, (c) subject culture, (d) attitudes and beliefs, (e) knowledge and skills, and (f) assessment We then describe the strategies to overcome such barriers: (a) having a shared vision and technology integration plan, (b) overcoming the scarcity of resources, (c) changing attitudes and beliefs, (d) conducting professional development, and (e) reconsidering assessments Finally, we identify several current knowledge gaps pertaining to the barriers and strategies of technology integration, and offer pertinent recommendations for future research

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Integrating Technology into K-12 Teaching and Learning: Current Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations for Future Research

In this paper I conceptualize experiences with technology as an object of study for educational technology research and propose phenomenology as a highly suitable method for studying this construct. I begin by reviewing existing research focusing on the construct of experiences with technology and the approaches utilized for its study. To augment this literature, I explain the phenomenological concept of experience and describe its utility for understanding experiences with technology. I propose the theoretical and methodological approach of phenomenology as a framework for developing a research agenda on experiences with technology and for unifying existing lines of research in this area. To illustrate the promise of this approach and to facilitate its application, I describe a research design consistent with the theoretical underpinnings of phenomenology, including methods for collecting and analyzing data as well as ethical and validity considerations specific to this research design. I conclude by identifying several possible research directions utilizing a phenomenological approach in educational technology to incite further research in this area.

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A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research

In a pilot study of the Technology Immersion model, high-need middle schools were “immersed” in technology by providing a laptop for each student and teacher, wireless Internet access, curricular and assessment resources, professional development, and technical and pedagogical support. This article examines the fidelity of model implementation and associations between implementation indicators and student achievement. Results across three years for 21 immersion schools show that the average levels of school support for Technology Immersion and teachers’ Classroom Immersion increased slightly, while the level of Student Access and Use declined. Implementation quality varied across schools and classrooms, with a quarter or less of schools and core-content classrooms reaching substantial implementation. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we found that teacher-level implementation components (Immersion Support, Classroom Immersion) were inconsistent and mostly not statistically significant predictors of student achievement, whereas students’ use of laptops outside of school for homework and learning games was the strongest implementation mediator of achievement.

/pdf/evaluating-the-implementation-fidelity-of-technology-2yh7p5pxqt.pdf

Evaluating the Implementation Fidelity of Technology Immersion and Its Relationship with Student Achievement

Advocates of ubiquitous computing have long been documenting classroom benefits of one-to-one ratios of students to handheld or laptop computers. The recent sophisticated capabilities of the iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad have encouraged further speculation on exactly how K–12 teaching and learning might be energized by such devices. This paper summarizes the research-to-date on mobile learning for K–12 students, and then delineates specific features and applications available on the iPod Touch that might impact student learning across the curricula. Finally, caveats are offered regarding the introduction and assimilation of these handheld computers into K–12 schools.

Integrating the iPod Touch in K–12 Education: Visions and Vices

What is our current understanding of one-to-one computer projects: A systematic narrative research review

Maine was the first state to put laptops in the hands of an entire grade of students. This interpretive case study of two middle school science-math teachers was driven by the general question: Given ubiquitous computing, how do teachers use computers in constructing curriculum and delivering instruction? Specifically, the researchers sought to examine the facilitators and barriers for teachers in using laptops in the classroom. Using qualitative methods, the researchers collected data during the first year of the Maine Learning Technology Initiative (MLTI). Differential effects of one-to-one computing on each teacher were found along two dimensions: the effect of technical technological issues, and the educational effect of technology policies. For both teachers, the effects were deeply altered by the teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning, which in turn affected their ultimate choices of how their time (and their students’ time) was spent. This empirical study offers a preliminary analysi...

/pdf/a-year-in-the-life-two-seventh-grade-teachers-implement-one-2iwmlkb6py.pdf

A Year in the Life: Two Seventh Grade Teachers Implement One-to-One Computing.

During a six-month naturalistic study, the author conducted an ethnographic examination of a seventh grade hypermedia unit. Beginning with the global question, “In what ways are computers used to support the education of middle school students?” the researcher coded and analyzed observations, interviews and projects. Three themes emerged: the seventh graders’ understanding of electronic conventions, their ability to demonstrate awareness of audience, and the curricular communication climate in the school. The fact that students were developing signifi cant compositional skills in the computer lab, went unnoticed by the literacy teachers. The potential for better and more integrated core discipline learning cannot be reached by perpetuating the traditional isolation of computer skills. This study carries implications not only for computer technology teachers but also for curriculum directors, administrators and college of education faculty members.

Middle School Hypermedia Composition: A Qualitative Case Study

The contribution of qualitative research consists in "description, verification (of existing theories, hypotheses, generalizations, or practices), evaluation or prescription, as well as understanding" (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 16). This qualitative study examined the dynamics and complexities, which occur in the natural setting of a seventh grade classroom as students learn to use a hypermedia program (HyperStudio). Data collection techniques included field observations, student and teacher interviews, surveys, and student work. The author viewed the data through the lens of Dewey's methodological barriers to education, and found three major results. Marginal students were motivated to construct creative and innovation projects in a different way than their honor-roll peers. The tools available in software programs can interact with a student's original purpose to produce a more innovative project than initially conceived. Most importantly, this study found that the absence of substantive school-wide conversations involving the computer teacher appear to limit the educational benefits afforded by using hypermedia tools. ********** TODAY'S CLUBHOUSE? PROBLEM STATEMENT Some educational theorists believe that tools, properly supported by instruction, can foster educational growth above and beyond the specific learning of the original activity (Dewey, 1902; Papert, 1993). John Dewey outlined three general methodological barriers to the education of children: (a) the dearth of active and engaged learning in the curriculum, (b) the expectation of mental accretion of abstract ideas (barren symbols with which children are unable to identify), and, (c) in the quest to spoon-feed education to children, the over-simplification of subjects, which sucks dry interesting and pithy material. These barriers result in a lack of student motivation and a withering in the development of self-discipline. Yet learning cannot be divorced from the context in which it occurs; the cognitive content of the activity and the social environment both influence the learner (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). In the search for environments that might overcome these problems, Dewey envisioned carpentry sets, gardens, and clubhouses. However, there is only so much one can do with gardening in the winter and only so many clubhouses one can build in the classroom. Materials are consumable and products collect. Project artifacts are not easily revised (Lehrer, 1993; Perkins, 1986). Hypermedia may be especially well suited as a construction tool for knowledge formation and creative expression, as some researchers have suggested (Beichner, 1994; Harel, 1991; Kafei, 1995; Liu & Rutledge, 1996; McKillop, 1996; Riddle, 1995; Turner & Dipinto, 1992). David Jonassen (1996) proposed the term "mindtool" to illuminate the distinction: Mindtools are not intended necessarily to make learning easier. Rather, Mindtools often require learners to think harder about the subject matter domain being studied while generating thoughts that would be impossible without the tool. While they are thinking harder, learners are also thinking more meaningfully as they construct their own realities by designing their own knowledge bases. (p. 30). Weller (1996) concluded his meta-analysis of research in hypermedia with some comments on the new research: "The future may bring much more use of qualitative methodology to inform studies of the highly complex computer-based science learning experience" (p. 481). Patton (1990) and Glesne and Peshkin (1992) expected the rigor of qualitative research to evolve from solid descriptive data ("thick description"), which is presented in such a manner that readers are able to form similar interpretations (Patton, p. 375). Ayersman (1996) noted in his overview of the research in hypermedia-based teaching that "authentic classroom-based research" is more directly applicable to teachers in the field (p. …

Use of Hypermedia in One Middle School: A Qualitative Field Study.

Research question: Given ubiquitous computing, how do teachers use computers in constructing curriculum and delivering instruction? In 2000, Maine's Governor announced a bold plan to make students in the state technologically literate. A task force was convened to study the concept, flesh out the vision, and address the barriers to the aims of the Maine Learning Technology Initiative (MLTI). Their vision was even bolder: Our schools are challenged to prepare young people to navigate and prosper in this world, with technology as an ally rather than an obstacle. The challenge is familiar, but the imperative is new: we must prepare young people to thrive in a world that doesn't exist yet, to grapple with problems and construct new knowledge which is barely visible to us today. It is no longer adequate to prepare some of our young people to high levels of learning and technological literacy; we must prepare all for the demands of a world in which workers and citizens will be required to use and create knowledge, and embrace technology as a powerful tool to do so. Research Institute was poised to evaluate the project on a statewide basis. The Institute offered a few grants for researchers who wished to study a slice of this innovative initiative. Since teachers can act as gatekeepers for student achievement, two faculty members at the University of Maine carried out a year-long case study, focusing on two teachers using the MLTI laptops. This research brief describes the study, which took place during 2002-2003, and is in the process of publication by the authors. Hillside Middle School is located in a rural area, not too far from the state university. (Except for the name of the state, pseudonyms are used.) When the study took place, Hillside housed approximately 380 students in grades six through eight. Across all subjects, for three years, the average school scores for the state standardized tests were remarkably close to the state averages. 1 The researchers used an iterative data analysis technique, which involved the transcription of audiotapes, and the coding of artifacts, observations, and interviews. They used inductive analysis in summarizing the data. Although the paired participants were "samples of convenience" they provided an intriguing look into how teachers worked with one-to-one computing. Rick, a science teacher from Hillside Middle School had just finished a master's program in instructional technology. He graciously offered to allow the researchers in …

/pdf/two-teachers-implement-one-to-one-computing-a-case-study-415gncaymw.pdf

Two Teachers Implement One-to-One Computing: A Case Study

Two Teachers Implement One-to-One Computing:

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