With the rapid development of artificial intelligence and intelligent manufacturing, the traditional teaching-playback mode and the off-line programming (OLP) mode cannot meet the flexible and fast modern manufacturing mode. Therefore, the intelligent welding robots have been widely developed and applied into the industrial production lines to improve the manufacturing efficiency. The sensing system of welding robots is one of the key technologies to realize the intelligent robot welding. Due to its unique characteristics of good robustness and high precision, the structured light sensor has been widely developed in the intelligent welding robots. To adapt to different measurement tasks of the welding robots, many researchers have designed different structured light sensors and integrated them into the intelligent welding robots. Therefore, the latest research and application work about the structured light sensors in the intelligent welding robots is analyzed and summarized, such as initial weld position identification, parameter extraction, seam tracking, monitoring of welding pool, and welding quality detection, to provide a comprehensive reference for researchers engaged in these related research work as much as possible.

Advances techniques of the structured light sensing in intelligent welding robots: a review

Resistance element welding of 7075 aluminum alloy to Ti6Al4V titanium alloy

As a result of investigations of compressive deformation of steel specimens using a Vic-3D optical system it is found out that the regions of local deformations along two mutually perpendicular directions possess different character near the butt ends of the specimen in compression. It is underlined that the values of strains along these directions are also different. In the central part of the specimen, an oval region is formed with varied patterns of microstrain distribution. The transition from the stage of elastic strain (Region I in the stress–strain curve σ = f(ɛ)) to plastic deformation is accompanied by a transition from the chaotic diversified distribution of the spatial structural elements into long bands with a characteristic distribution pattern on the specimen surface: along the macrobands of plastic deformation from the corners and side faces of the specimen towards its center. Starting from Stage 1 and to the middle of Stage IV, the key role in the strain evolution on the surface belongs to the macrobands of localized plastic flow. At the end of Stage IV, the macrobands of plastic flow degenerate. A special focus is made on the fact that the transition from one stage to the other results in the changes of the strain field distributions on the specimen surface and is characterized by a different value of the strain hardening coefficient.

Changes in the Stress–Strain States of Subsurface Layers of Steel During Loading

Comprehensive review on improvement in surface properties of bearing steel

An investigation of the welding seam structure of micro- and submicrocrystalline specimens of VT1-0 alloy is reported. Special features are revealed in the formation of the heat-affected zone in the alloy as a result of electron-beam action due to its structural state. Particular attention is given to the role of α→β-transformations characterizing titanium alloys subjected to thermal impacts. It is found that the structural features of all welding-joint zones, considering the phase transformations, determine the character of hardness value distribution and the respective strength properties of the weld joints. A comparison is given between the structure formation in microcrystalline alloys and in welding seams formed by laser-beam welding. The welding of submicrocrystalline titanium is also compared to another high-energy impact – resistance welding.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11182-018-1368-8.pdf

The Structure and Properties of Microcrystalline and Submicrocrystalline Titanium Alloy VT1-0 in the Area of the Electron Beam Welding Seam

Combined technologies based on the use of concentrated energy fluxes, including low-temperature plasma and a pulsed electron beam, is currently considered to be an effective approach for surface modification of metals and alloys, cermet and ceramic materials. The purpose of the paper is to identify and analyze the patterns of changes in the elemental and phase composition, the state of the defective substructure, and mechanical properties of industrial steel Gr1J03502 subjected to combined treatment that includes plasma deposition of a powder coating based on the Ni-Cr-B-Si system and irradiation with an intense pulsed electron beam. The results obtained by optimizing the mode of the substrate surface fusion and the mode of powder deposition onto the molten surface of the substrate using low-temperature plasma generators of the original design are presented. It has been found that the optimum melting mode of the substrate surface is implemented with the following parameters of the plant: the feed rate is Vп = 50 … 150 mm/min, the distance is h1 = 30…100 mm, the scanning frequency is ω = 50 min−1, β = 75 … 90°, the amplitude is 90 … 100 mm, the plasmatron voltage is 160 V, the current strength is Im = 100 … 120 А. The optimal spraying conditions of the powders are as follows: h1 = 30÷50 mm; h2 = 100÷120 mm; β = 75÷90°; α = 45÷50°; ω = 50 min−1; Um = 140÷160 В; IS = 350÷400A; Im = 80÷100 A; GH (sprayed powder consumption) 0.8÷1 g/s. The characteristics of a plasma jet generated by an electric arc plasmatron are presented. The parameters of the electron beam are as follows: the energy of accelerated electrons is 18 keV, the energy density of the electron beam is 20 J/cm2 and 40 J/cm2, the pulse duration of the electron beam is 200 μs, the pulse repetition rate is 0.3 s−1, and the number of pulses is 10. It has been shown that plasma spraying of a powder coating leads to formation of a high relief surface containing micro and macropores, microcracks, and particles of the sprayed powder. Subsequent treatment of the modified surface with an intense pulsed electron beam of a submillisecond duration in the melting mode of the surface layer is accompanied by smoothing of the coating surface, saturation of the crystalline lattice of the steel surface with Ni, Cr, B, and Si atoms, formation of submicron-sized dendritic crystallization cells, precipitation of nanosized particles of the second phase, and formation of a quenching (martensitic) steel structure. Together, these transformations of the structure and phase composition of the material have led to a multiple increase in the microhardness of the surface layer with a thickness of up to 1500 mm.

The use of low-temperature plasma in a combined technology for the formation of wear-resistant boron-containing coatings

The structure of weld joints of the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V in the initial ultrafine-grained state, obtained by resistance spot welding, is studied using the optical and scanning electron microscopy method and the X-ray structure analysis. The carried out studies show the relationship of the metal structure in the weld zone with main joint zones. The structure in the core zone and the heat affected zone is represented by finely dispersed grains of needle-shaped martensite, differently oriented in these zones. The change in the microhardness in the longitudinal section of the weld joint clearly correlates with structural changes during welding.

Structure of Ti-6Al-4V nanostructured titanium alloy joint obtained by resistance spot welding

The experimental data on structural state of an aluminum alloy, AlMg6, in the weld zone formed by friction stir welding are analyzed in order to evaluate the effect of its subsequent ultrasonic treatment. It is found that the crystal lattice transits into a low-stability state as a result of combined heat-induced and severe shear deformation. This transition is accompanied by considerable structural-phase changes that are manifested as an increased lattice parameter of the solid solution. This increase is caused by both high values of internal stresses and increased concentration of Mg atoms in the solid solution due to essential dissolution of the β-Al2Mg3 particles with the content of manganese higher than that in the matrix. This is accompanied by high-intensity diffusion and relaxation processes due to the low-stability state of crystal lattice (inhomogeneous stresses) in the weld zone.

Structural State of a Weld Formed in Aluminum Alloy by Friction Stir Welding and Treated by Ultrasound

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The use of low-temperature plasma in a combined technology for the formation of wear-resistant boron-containing coatings

Structure of Ti-6Al-4V nanostructured titanium alloy joint obtained by resistance spot welding

Structural State of a Weld Formed in Aluminum Alloy by Friction Stir Welding and Treated by Ultrasound