Sustainable development and the transition to a clean-energy economy drives ever-increasing demand for base metals, substantially outstripping the discovery rate of new deposits and necessitating dramatic improvements in exploration success. Rifting of the continents has formed widespread sedimentary basins, some of which contain large quantities of copper, lead and zinc. Despite over a century of research, the geological structure responsible for the spatial distribution of such fertile regions remains enigmatic. Here, we use statistical tests to compare deposit locations with new maps of lithospheric thickness, which outline the base of tectonic plates. We find that 85% of sediment-hosted base metals, including all giant deposits (>10 megatonnes of metal), occur within 200 kilometres of the transition between thick and thin lithosphere. Rifting in this setting produces greater subsidence and lower basal heat flow, enlarging the depth extent of hydrothermal circulation available for forming giant deposits. Given that mineralization ages span the past two billion years, this observation implies long-term lithospheric edge stability and a genetic link between deep Earth processes and near-surface hydrothermal mineral systems. This discovery provides an unprecedented global framework for identifying fertile regions for targeted mineral exploration, reducing the search space for new deposits by two-thirds on this lithospheric thickness criterion alone. Major sediment-hosted base metal deposits are located within 200 km of the border between thick and thin lithosphere, according to statistical comparisons between global lithospheric thickness and known deposit locations.

/pdf/global-distribution-of-sediment-hosted-metals-controlled-by-j6a8rvpwky.pdf

Global distribution of sediment-hosted metals controlled by craton edge stability

GIS-based mineral prospectivity mapping (MPM) is a computer-aided methodology for delineating and better constraining target areas deemed prospective for mineral deposits of a particular type. The underlying algorithms are well-established and well-understood, but on the whole, MPM that is a multi-faceted and multi-criteria approach, is faced with a high degree of uncertainty. We distinguish three principal types of uncertainties: (1) data-related (e.g., the sometimes erroneous, inadequate, incomplete, unevenly distributed or poorly resolved nature of the input data); (2) model-related (e.g., the diversity and inherent natural variability of mineral deposits, our lack of complete knowledge of the targeted mineral deposit type, and our imperfect ability to interpret geoscience datasets); and (3) judgment-related (e.g., the influence of cognitive heuristics and biases). In this contribution, we review and characterize the key uncertainties listed above and provide possible solutions as to how they may be recognized and mitigated in the context of MPM. This review also clearly illustrates the need for future studies designed to carefully monitor each step of the MPM process and aims at reducing uncertainty by, for example, (1) using carefully vetted, high-quality input data, (2) developing targeting models based on the best possible understanding of the underlying mineral deposit models and backed by machine learning-based simulations of likely ore-forming processes, and (3) adopting advanced methods such as deep learning algorithms for effective integrating of predictor maps.

Uncertainties in GIS-Based Mineral Prospectivity Mapping: Key Types, Potential Impacts and Possible Solutions

Iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits – A review (part 1): Settings, mineralogy, ore geochemistry and classification

Introduction to the special issue on spatial modelling and analysis of ore-forming processes in mineral exploration targeting

Since the concept of mineral systems was first proposed, there have been growing calls for their use in deriving holistic genetic models and in assisting in exploration targeting in a world of diminishing mineral discoveries. This is because the mineral systems approach provides a means of integrating information over a range of time and terrane scales using the broad critical components of Geodynamics, Fertility, Architecture, and Preservation. Although their adoption is limited, the value of such mineral systems for single deposit classes and closely related deposit groups is demonstrated and numerous disparate deposit classes are shown to occupy equivalent tectonic niches in terms of their Geodynamic and Preservation components. The value of a mineral system model for a single deposit class is demonstrated for orogenic gold deposits using the premise that their genesis is explained in terms of a single global model rather than a series of disparate local models. If all orogenic gold deposits define a coherent mineral system, there are only two realistic sources of auriferous fluid, based on their syn-mineralization geodynamic settings. These are from devolatilization of a subducted oceanic slab with its overlying sulfide-rich sedimentary package, or release from mantle lithosphere that was metasomatized and fertilized during a previous subduction event, particularly adjacent to craton margins. This orogenic gold mineral system can be applied to conceptual exploration by first identifying the required settings at Geodynamic to deposit scales. Within these settings, it is then possible to define the critical gold mineralization processes in the system: Fertility, Architecture, and Preservation. These among other parameters, dictate that the structures controlling ore fluid advection must be lithosphere-scale faults that can be identified in magneto-telluric surveys, and that amphibolite-facies metamorphic domains are prospective exploration search spaces. The porphyry-high sulfidation-skarn Cu-Au (Mo, W, Ag) deposit group is an example where the mineral system comprises several deposit classes that are commonly spatially and temporally associated. These occur in strike extensive, curvilinear volcanic, continental, island, and post-collisional arcs, where Geodynamics and province-scale Architecture are controlled by arc-parallel continental-scale faults and intersections of oblique crustal-scale accommodation structures, commonly in shallow subduction slab arc segments. Fertility of the arcs is indicated by geochemistry of volcanic components that reflect residence and replenishment of H2O-rich hybrid source magmas in upper crustal magma chambers. In terms of district-scale Architecture, the porphyry-related systems are sited within and above small finger-shaped porphyritic bodies that intrude the roof zones of oxidized granitic plutons. The mineral systems comprise vertically and laterally zoned orebodies, alteration envelopes, and metal ratios developed from long-lived, originally high salinity and low pH, evolving magmatic-hydrothermal fluids exsolved from the fertile porphyry intrusions. Preservation potential is limited because of high uplift and erosion rates in the host arcs, with most deposits restricted to the Cenozoic, although there are Mesozoic examples in post-collisional arcs. At district scale, the presence of lithocaps identifies systems at a suitable exhumation level for exploration, with a range of mapping, remote sensing spectral, and geophysical methodologies applicable to detect critical responses from extensive porphyry-related footprints. Craton and thick lithosphere margins represent Geodynamic settings with high Preservation factors for an incredibly large range of deposit classes enriched in Ag, Au, Bi, Co, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, PGE, REE, Sb, Sn, Te, W, and Zn, and including diamonds. These are sited within ∼100 km of the margins due to adjacent metasomatized and fertilized mantle lithosphere, development of lithosphere-scale fault arrays, or fertile marginal basins on these margins. Thus, although Fertility and Architecture components vary widely between component mineral systems, the combined Geodynamic and Preservation factors provide specific restricted exploration search spaces for a variety of deposit classes. This is shown in spectacular fashion for the North China and Yangtze cratons in eastern China where 66 diverse giant or world class deposits are sited within ∼100 km of their margins.

Mineral systems: Their advantages in terms of developing holistic genetic models and for target generation in global mineral exploration

Mapping iron oxide Cu-Au (IOCG) mineral potential in Australia using a knowledge-driven mineral systems-based approach

Predictive mapping of mineral systems represents an important tool for assessing the potential for undiscovered mineral resources in Australia. Recently, assessments for a range of uranium mineralisation styles have been performed across three regional studies in Queensland, South Australia and the Northern Territory. These investigations have been undertaken using a mineral systems framework which considers key system components including sources, fluid-flow drivers and pathways, and depositional mechanisms. The method which has been used places a strong emphasis on identifying important processes leading to ore formation, which are then translated into mappable geological proxies using a range of input datasets and derivatives. At relatively shallow depths, these may be mapped using geochemical and observational geological data. However, deeper-buried terranes, such as those dominating most of the Australian continent, require the use geophysical data to generate proxies for targeting the desired processes. Importantly, and unlike other available techniques, the method employed does not rely on the locations of known mineralisation to generate maps of mineral potential. This allows assessment of mineral potential in greenfield regions of Australia, including those beneath significant volumes of cover. Results from the regional studies completed to date successfully reproduce the locations of known mineralisation and highlight potential in areas not currently recognised as mineralised. Such mineral system analyses provide predictive models which may be the focus for follow-up investigation, including drilling.

/pdf/targeting-future-mineral-discoveries-under-cover-using-a-4gf4k8uyfn.pdf

Targeting future mineral discoveries under cover using a mineral systems approach

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Mapping iron oxide Cu-Au (IOCG) mineral potential in Australia using a knowledge-driven mineral systems-based approach

Targeting future mineral discoveries under cover using a mineral systems approach