Abstract Out-of-sequence deformation in the Himalaya has been caused mainly by thrusting. Out-of-sequence thrusts, usually north- to NE-dipping foreshear planes, occur inside the Sub-Himalaya (SH), Lesser Himalaya (LH) and Greater Himalayan Crystalline (GHC) sequences. Where absolute dates are available, the youngest slip within the SH occurred near the Janauri Anticline (India) at c. AD 1400–1460. The Munsiari Thrust (India) activated within the LH at c. 1–2 Ma and the Main Central Thrust zone in the Marsyandi valley (Nepal) in the GHC was formed during the Holocene (c. 0.3 ka). Except for the Riasi Thrust (Kashmir, India), the Paonta Thrust (Himachal Pradesh, India) in the Siwalik and the Tons Thrust (Garhwal region, India) within the Main Central Thrust zone, crustal shortening related to out-of-sequence thrusting in the Himalaya has been insignificant. The major litho-/stratigraphic contacts within the SH and the GHC at some places acted as out-of-sequence thrusts. Out-of-sequence thrusts in the SH have been detected mainly based on geomorphological observations. However, more quantitative geochronological studies have detected out-of-sequence thrusting from c. 22 Ma up to Holocene age in the GHC based on age jumps, especially within the Main Central Thrust zone. Crustal channel flow (specifically for the GHC) and/or the critical taper model with or without erosion can be used to explain the Himalayan out-of-sequence thrusts.

A review on out-of-sequence deformation in the Himalaya

The Jammu Region (JR) in the northwestern Himalayas trigged by medium to high magnitude near-field as well as far-field earthquake events, including the most recent 2019 Mirpur earthquake. In this paper, an attempt has been made to develop the zonation map for liquefaction hazard in the JR based on liquefaction potential index ( $$\mathrm{LPI}$$ ) and probability of liquefaction ( $${P}_{L}$$ ). To achieve this, factor of safety against liquefaction was estimated using standard penetration test (SPT) data collected from geotechnical consultancies and shear wave velocity measured during field testing at 243 locations, and an integrated liquefaction hazard map generated. The liquefaction features such as sand blows and ground rupture were found in Jatah (Samba district) and Simbal (Jammu district). According to the integrated hazard map, places near the bank of Tawi River and Ravi River in Jammu have young alluvium, making them particularly prone to liquefaction. Liquefaction does not occur in the eastern and western sections because of high shear wave velocities and rock at shallow depth, and it also does not occur in the central area due to thick sand deposits. $$\mathrm{LPI}$$ values ranged from 0 to 27.45 having very low to very high liquefaction risk. $${P}_{L}$$ is greater than 0.75 for sites located on the southwestern side due to uniformly graded soil having extremely low SPT (N) and $${V}_{s}$$ values. This study will aid site planners in the construction of structures that consider liquefaction mitigation and well-defined liquefaction risk measures. 

/pdf/liquefaction-hazard-assessment-in-a-seismically-active-2um5qo8x.pdf

Liquefaction hazard assessment in a seismically active region of Himalayas using geotechnical and geophysical investigations: a case study of the Jammu Region

A large number of geological studies have shown that most of the Asian regions are prone to earthquake risks, and this is particularly significant in SE Asia. The tectonics of this region allow the geological investigators to argue for severe vulnerability to major and devastating earthquakes in the near future. This remind us of the devastations of Nepal in 2015, of Japan in 2011, of the significant destruction of life and property at Acehnese and Thai coasts in 2004, and of Kashmir and New Orleans in 2005. Such example of destructions could be minimized to a greater extent if proper scientific and administrative framework are established. This was surely lacking in most of the above examples. And previous studies have suggested that scientists and administrative authorities should work together to map the actual vulnerabilities on ground, and simultaneously educate people about the probable causes of earthquakes and how to minimize the destruction. Here we further show that nations with a turbulence political past and an ongoing unstable political problem are more likely to score less on securing its people from disasters. And this score can significantly deteriorate if a nation does not work on eradication of corruption as it can make monsters out of ordinary disasters. We further show that South and Southeast Asian region are relatively young nations that are still in post-colonial period and are largely involved in strengthening of their economies as well as cleaning of the post-colonial problems. While the increasing values of gross domestic product (GPD) per capita and a decent rise in literacy rates are good news to win battle with disasters, these nations have to work really hard to eradicate corruption and spend more on scientific research and awareness about earthquake disasters.

/pdf/living-with-earthquake-hazards-in-south-and-south-east-asia-2izf87m4hz.pdf

Living with earthquake hazards in South and South East Asia

This study attempts to evaluate the seismic hazard for the Jammu region based on a deterministic approach considering two earthquake scenarios using a logic tree framework. The Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) values at bedrock level are estimated using already defined GMPEs for the Himalayan region by different researchers. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) and Reasi thrust are found to be the most critical capable of generating PGA > 0.8 g. The findings of the study indicate that the PGA at bedrock level for the region ranged from 0.14 g to 0.67 g. The DSHA in terms of bedrock level PGA for 50th and 84th percentile reveals that the maximum hazard level occurs in the western part of the Jammu region. The DSHA map of bedrock PGA for 50th percentile shows that central part is exposed to severe seismic hazard. The predicted PGA values can be used to assess the seismic stability of existing structures and for the design of earthquake-resistant structures in and around the Jammu region. 

Deterministic Approach for Seismic Hazard Assessment of Jammu Region, Jammu and Kashmir

Recently , biochar has been widely used in geotechnical and environmental engineering to solve various engineering problems. However, very few studies have been carried out to understand the cyclic behavior of the biochar treated soil. This study explores the possibility of using environment-friendly and stable carbon material (i.e., biochar) for enhancing the cyclic strength of Ganga sand. In this study, Ganga sand (located in Northern India) samples are dry mixed with 3%, 6%, and 10% biochar by weight and tested under low strain-controlled cyclic triaxial tests. The test results demonstrated a 30–50% increase in the number of loading cycles for biochar mixed sand than clean Ganga sand. Based on the cyclic test results, it may be inferred that biochar can be used as soil amendments to increase the liquefaction resistance of sandy soil. Future studies need to be conducted to understand the influence of the type of biochar (i.e., pyrolysis temperature and feedstock type, such as plant/animal waste) on the liquefaction potential of soils. However, such studies will promote commercial production of biochar as it is considered as an essential material owing to it carbon sequestration effects.

Laboratory Investigations of Liquefaction Mitigation of Ganga Sand Using Stable Carbon Material: A Case Study

We report in this note the farthest recorded liquefaction phenomenon near Jammu as sequel to the Mw 7.6,8 October, 2005 Muzaffarabad earthquake of Kashmir. The most common liquefaction features were sand blows and longitudinal en echelon fissures . Based on the occurrence of liquefaction and minor damage to the pakka houses it is suggested that the intensity would have been around VI-VII on MSK scale in this region.

Farthest Recorded Liquefaction around Jammu Caused by 8 October, 2005 Muzaffarabad Earthquake of Mw=7.6

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Farthest Recorded Liquefaction around Jammu Caused by 8 October, 2005 Muzaffarabad Earthquake of Mw=7.6