An attempt is made to investigate the nature of cold-stage distributions for those forest trees which today extend to northem Europe. Evidence is taken from the pollen record of the present and earlier interglacials, a model of past climate, modem tree distributions, and physi- ography of southem Europe. The trees occupied mid- altitude sites in the mountains of southem Europe, espe- cially in the westem Balkans and Italy during the last cold stage. These areas would have had a suitable climate, and it is argued that the trees could easily have survived there at densities low enough to escape detection in the pollen record. Most taxa which spread north at the beginning of an interglacial become extinct in the northern part of their ranges, and do not retreat south at the end of the interglacial. The survival of these trees in southern Europe through a warm stage may be at least as important for long-term Qua- ternary survival in Europe as survival during a cold stage.

Quaternary refugia of north european trees

Review and new aspects concerning the formation of eastern Mediterranean sapropels

The dramatic and cyclic changes that have characterized the Earth's climate throughout the Quaternary may be illustrated by developments during the last such cycle which took place over the past 140,000 years. Quantitative reconstruction of the continental climate over this period improves the correlation between marine and land records and emphasizes the role of post-temperate forested episodes at the beginning of ice-sheet formation.

A 140,000-year continental climate reconstruction from two European pollen records

Patterns and processes of Late Quaternary environmental change in a montane region of southwestern Europe

Holocene climatic changes in the Western Mediterranean, from south-east France to south-east Spain

The holocene- and upper pleistocene pollen record from Padul (Granada, Spain): A new study

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The holocene- and upper pleistocene pollen record from Padul (Granada, Spain): A new study