抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Progress in the area of MHD stability and disruptions, since the publication of the 1999 ITER Physics Basis document (1999 Nucl. Fusion 39 2137-2664), is reviewed. Recent theoretical and experimental research has made important advances in both understanding and control of MHD stability in tokamak plasmas. Sawteeth are anticipated in the ITER baseline ELMy H-mode scenario, but the tools exist to avoid or control them through localized current drive or fast ion generation. Active control of other MHD instabilities will most likely be also required in ITER. Extrapolation from existing experiments indicates that stabilization of neoclassical tearing modes by highly localized feedback-controlled current drive should be possible in ITER. Resistive wall modes are a key issue for advanced scenarios, but again, existing experiments indicate that these modes can be stabilized by a combination of plasma rotation and direct feedback control with non-axisymmetric coils. Reduction of error fields is a requirement for avoiding non-rotating magnetic island formation and for maintaining plasma rotation to help stabilize resistive wall modes. Recent experiments have shown the feasibility of reducing error fields to an acceptable level by means of non-axisymmetric coils, possibly controlled by feedback. The MHD stability limits associated with advanced scenarios are becoming well understood theoretically, and can be extended by tailoring of the pressure and current density profiles as well as by other techniques mentioned here. There have been significant advances also in the control of disruptions, most notably by injection of massive quantities of gas, leading to reduced halo current fractions and a larger fraction of the total thermal and magnetic energy dissipated by radiation. These advances in disruption control are supported by the development of means to predict impending disruption, most notably using neural networks. In addition to these advances in means to control or ameliorate the consequences of MHD instabilities, there has been significant progress in improving physics understanding and modelling. This progress has been in areas including the mechanisms governing NTM growth and seeding, in understanding the damping controlling RWM stability and in modelling RWM feedback schemes. For disruptions there has been continued progress on the instability mechanisms that underlie various classes of disruption, on the detailed modelling of halo currents and forces and in refining predictions of quench rates and disruption power loads. Overall the studies reviewed in this chapter demonstrate that MHD instabilities can be controlled, avoided or ameliorated to the extent that they should not compromise ITER operation, though they will necessarily impose a range of constraints.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0029-5515/47/6/S03/pdf

Chapter 3: MHD stability, operational limits and disruptions

The phenomenology of edge localized modes (ELMs), an MHD instability occurring in the edge of H-mode plasmas in toroidal magnetic fusion experiments, is described. ELMs are important to obtain experimental control of the particle inventory of fusion plasmas. From an analysis of the ELM behaviour of different magnetic fusion experiments, three distinct types are identified, namely dithering cycles, type III and type I ELMs. A physical picture of these phenomena is established on the grounds of theoretical models put forward to describe the different ELM phenomena.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0741-3335/38/2/001/pdf

Edge localized modes (ELMs)

The understanding and predictive capability of transport physics and plasma confinement is reviewed from the perspective of achieving reactor-scale burning plasmas in the ITER tokamak, for both core and edge plasma regions. Very considerable progress has been made in understanding, controlling and predicting tokamak transport across a wide variety of plasma conditions and regimes since the publication of the ITER Physics Basis (IPB) document (1999 Nucl. Fusion 39 2137-2664). Major areas of progress considered here follow. (1) Substantial improvement in the physics content, capability and reliability of transport simulation and modelling codes, leading to much increased theory/experiment interaction as these codes are increasingly used to interpret and predict experiment. (2) Remarkable progress has been made in developing and understanding regimes of improved core confinement. Internal transport barriers and other forms of reduced core transport are now routinely obtained in all the leading tokamak devices worldwide. (3) The importance of controlling the H-mode edge pedestal is now generally recognized. Substantial progress has been made in extending high confinement H-mode operation to the Greenwald density, the demonstration of Type I ELM mitigation and control techniques and systematic explanation of Type I ELM stability. Theory-based predictive capability has also shown progress by integrating the plasma and neutral transport with MHD stability. (4) Transport projections to ITER are now made using three complementary approaches: empirical or global scaling, theory-based transport modelling and dimensionless parameter scaling (previously, empirical scaling was the dominant approach). For the ITER base case or the reference scenario of conventional ELMy H-mode operation, all three techniques predict that ITER will have sufficient confinement to meet its design target of Q = 10 operation, within similar uncertainties.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0029-5515/47/6/S02/pdf

Chapter 2: Plasma confinement and transport

A review of measurements of microscopic fluctuations and theories of turbulence and anomalous transport for tokamaks is given, and some comparisons between theory and experiment are presented. The results of the measurements indicate that all tokamaks have rather similar, broadband, incoherent microscopic fluctuations. Such fluctuations have been measured in the density, potential, electric field, and magnetic field. In the edge regions of three tokamaks, the particle transport caused by the turbulent electric field fluctuations has been measured directly. Although tokamak microturbulence has been studied extensively, neither its source nor its role in anomalous energy transport is yet understood. The incoherent, turbulent nature of the fluctuations has made it difficult to understand them theoretically. Recently, however, significant theoretical progress has been made in several areas including non-linear models of drift wave turbulence and transport, models of anomalous electron thermal conduction by stochastic magnetic field fluctuations, and non-linear models of localized resistive-MHD instabilities.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0029-5515/25/5/004/pdf

Measurements of microturbulence in tokamaks and comparisons with theories of turbulence and anomalous transport

In addition to impurity trapping, surfaces exposed to the boundary layer of a tokamak and other fusion devices are subjected to erosion phenomena. On local surface regions which do not experience unipolar arcing, these processes are due to the energetic fluxes of impurity and plasma particles which induce sputtering. Data are presented on collection probe experiments in the TCA tokamak which demonstrate that this erosion behavior may be evaluated from a knowledge of the shot dependence of the areal concentrations and impact energies of the trapped particles within the surface. Furthermore, a semiempirical parameter, which we call the ‘‘impurity recycling factor’’ (k), can be used to describe impurity retention and sputtering behavior for local plasma‐surface interactions. Data on impurity retention and reemission are presented with respect to the impurity recycling factor as a function of the distance from the plasma edge.

Impurity recycling and retention on Au and C surfaces exposed to the scrape‐off layer of the TCA tokamak

Reference EPFL-CONF-205848 URL: http://www-pub.iaea.org/iaeameetings/46091/25th-Fusion-Energy-Conference-FEC-2014 URL: https://crpplocal.epfl.ch/pinboard/papers/148003504.pdf Record created on 2015-03-02, modified on 2017-12-20

High Density Regime in Ohmic TCV Discharges with Positive and Negative Triangularity

Note: Proc. 4th Int. Symposium on Heating in Toroidal Plasmas, Rome, Italy, March 1984, Vol. I, 137 - 152 (1984) Reference CRPP-CONF-1984-014 Record created on 2008-05-13, modified on 2017-12-10

Alfvén wave heating on TCA

Evolution of Te and ne profiles during ECH and ECCD in TCV

Note: 19th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Lyon, France, October 2002, IAEA-CN-94/EX/P5-15 Reference CRPP-CONF-2002-094 Record created on 2008-05-13, modified on 2017-05-12

3rd Harmonic X-mode electron cyclotron resonance heating on TCV using top and low field side launch

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