Spatial climate data sets of 1971–2000 mean monthly precipitation and minimum and maximum temperature were developed for the conterminous United States These 30-arcsec (∼800-m) grids are the official spatial climate data sets of the US Department of Agriculture The PRISM (Parameter-elevation Relationships on Independent Slopes Model) interpolation method was used to develop data sets that reflected, as closely as possible, the current state of knowledge of spatial climate patterns in the United States PRISM calculates a climate–elevation regression for each digital elevation model (DEM) grid cell, and stations entering the regression are assigned weights based primarily on the physiographic similarity of the station to the grid cell Factors considered are location, elevation, coastal proximity, topographic facet orientation, vertical atmospheric layer, topographic position, and orographic effectiveness of the terrain Surface stations used in the analysis numbered nearly 13 000 for precipitation and 10 000 for temperature Station data were spatially quality controlled, and short-period-of-record averages adjusted to better reflect the 1971–2000 period

PRISM interpolation uncertainties were estimated with cross-validation (C-V) mean absolute error (MAE) and the 70% prediction interval of the climate–elevation regression function The two measures were not well correlated at the point level, but were similar when averaged over large regions The PRISM data set was compared with the WorldClim and Daymet spatial climate data sets The comparison demonstrated that using a relatively dense station data set and the physiographically sensitive PRISM interpolation process resulted in substantially improved climate grids over those of WorldClim and Daymet The improvement varied, however, depending on the complexity of the region Mountainous and coastal areas of the western United States, characterized by sparse data coverage, large elevation gradients, rain shadows, inversions, cold air drainage, and coastal effects, showed the greatest improvement The PRISM data set benefited from a peer review procedure that incorporated local knowledge and data into the development process Copyright © 2008 Royal Meteorological Society

Physiographically sensitive mapping of climatological temperature and precipitation across the conterminous United States

A numerical model of the coupled processes of tectonic deformation and surface erosion in convergent orogens is developed to investigate the nature of the interaction between these processes. Crustal deformation is calculated by a two-dimensional finite element model of deformation in response to subduction and accretion of continental crust. Erosion operates on the uplifted surface of this model through fluvial incision which is taken to be proportional to stream power. The relative importance of the tectonic and erosion processes is given by a dimensionless “erosion number” relating convergence velocity, rock erodibility, and precipitation rate. This number determines the time required for a system to reach steady state and the final topographic shape and size of a mountain belt. Fundamental characteristics of the model orogens include asymmetric topography with shallower slopes facing the subducting plate and an asymmetric pattern of exhumation with the deepest levels of exhumation opposite to subduction. These characteristics are modified when the regional climate exhibits a dominant wind direction and orographically enhanced precipitation on one side of the mountain belt. The two possible cases are dominant wind in the direction of motion of the subducting plate and dominant wind direction in the opposite direction of the subducting plate velocity. Models of the former case predict a broad zone of exhumation with maximum exhumation in the orogen interior. Models of the latter case predict a focused zone of exhumation at the margin of the orogen and, at high erosion number, a reversal in the topographic asymmetry. Natural examples of these two cases are presented. The Southern Alps of New Zealand exhibits the climate and exhumation asymmetry characteristic of wind in the direction opposite to motion of the subducting plate. The asymmetry of topography suggests that erosion is not efficient enough to have reversed the topographic asymmetry. The contrasting example of dominant wind in the direction of subduction motion is provided by the Olympic Mountains of Washington State. In this case, exhumation of deep levels of the Cascadia accretionary wedge shows a broad domal pattern consistent with the observed orographic precipitation.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999JB900248

Orogeny and orography: The effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts

There is compelling evidence from glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary of the utilization of microrefugia. Microrefugia are sites that support locally favorable climates amidst unfavorable regional climates, which allow populations of species to persist outside of their main distributions. Knowledge of the location of microrefugia has important implications for climate change research as it will influence our understanding of the spatial distribution of species through time, their patterns of genetic diversity, and potential dispersal rates in response to climate shifts. Indeed, the implications of microrefugia are profound and yet we know surprisingly little about their climatic basis; what climatic processes can support their subsistence, where they may occur, their climatic traits, and the relevance of these locations for climate change research. Here I examine the climatic basis for microrefugia and assert that the interaction between regional advective influences and local terrain influences will define the distribution and nature of microrefugia. I review the climatic processes that can support their subsistence and from this climatic basis: (1) infer traits of the spatial distribution of microrefugia and how this may change through time; (2) review assertions about their landscape position and what it can tell us about regional climates; and (3) demonstrate an approach to forecasting where microrefugia may occur in the future. This synthesis highlights the importance of landscape physiography in shaping the adaptive response of biota to climate change.

/pdf/a-climatic-basis-for-microrefugia-the-influence-of-terrain-48bhmlou7b.pdf

A climatic basis for microrefugia: the influence of terrain on climate

Aim Our aim was to quantify climatic influences on key leaf traits and relationships at the global scale. This knowledge provides insight into how plants have adapted to different environmental pressures, and will lead to better calibration of future vegetation‐climate models. Location The data set represents vegetation from 175 sites around the world. Methods For more than 2500 vascular plant species, we compiled data on leaf mass per area (LMA), leaf life span (LL), nitrogen concentration (N mass ) and photosynthetic capacity (A mass ). Site climate was described with several standard indices. Correlation and regression analyses were used for quantifying relationships between single leaf traits and climate. Standardized major axis (SMA) analyses were used for assessing the effect of climate on bivariate relationships between leaf traits. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to summarize multidimensional trait variation. Results At hotter, drier and higher irradiance sites, (1) mean LMA and leaf N per area were higher; (2) average LL was shorter at a given LMA, or the increase in LL was less for a given increase in LMA (LL‐LMA relationships became less positive); and (3) A mass was lower at a given N mass , or the increase in A mass was less for a given increase in N mass . Considering all traits simultaneously, 18% of variation along the principal multivariate trait axis was explained by climate.

/pdf/modulation-of-leaf-economic-traits-and-trait-relationships-2fja9uufdf.pdf

Modulation of leaf economic traits and trait relationships by climate

The dynamic system of tectonics and erosion contains important feedback mechanisms such that orogenic systems tend toward a steady state. This concept is often invoked, but the nature of the steady state is commonly not specified. We identify four types of steady state that characterize the orogenic system and illustrate these cases by using numerical-model results and natural examples. These types are (1) flux steady state, (2) topographic steady state, (3) thermal steady state, and (4) exhumational steady state: they refer to the erosional flux, the topography, the subsurface temperature field, and the spatial pattern of cooling ages, respectively. Models suggest that the topography will reach a steady mean form at the scale of an orogenic belt, but perfect topographic steady state is unlikely to be achieved at shorter length scales. Thermal steady state is a precondition for exhumational steady state and in the case of temperature-dependent deformation, topographic steady state. Exhumational steady state is characterized by reset age zones spatially nested according to closure temperature, as illustrated in natural systems from New Zealand, the Cascadia accretionary margin, and Taiwan.

On steady states in mountain belts

As Barry says in his preface, this is the first book dealing with mountain weather and climate worldwide and represents a review of all publications on the subject. As a matter of fact, this approach is not the best because information is not always extensively presented. It looks like a colorful stone mosaic, where a lot of stones are missing. Barry says in his introduction that the studies were ‘often viewed only in the context of a particular local problem.’

Mountain Weather and Climate

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Mountain Weather and Climate