The last decade has been transformative for micro(nano)plastic (MnP) research with recent discoveries revealing the extent and magnitude of MnP pollution, even in the world's most remote places. Historically, while researchers recognized that most plastic pollution was derived from land-based sources, it was generally believed that microplastic particles (i.e., plastic fragments <5 mm) was only a marine pollution issue with effects largely impacting marine biota. However, over the last decade MnP research has progressed rapidly with recent discoveries of MnPs in freshwater, snow, ice, soil, terrestrial biota, air and even found in ocean spray. MnPs have now been found in every environmental compartment on earth, within tissues and gastrointestinal tracts of thousands of species, including humans, resulting in harmful effects. The last 10 years has also seen the development of new techniques for MnP analysis, and re-purposing of old technologies allowing us to determine the extent and magnitude of plastic pollution down to the nano size range (<1 µm). This short review summarizes what key milestones and major advances have been made in microplastic and nanoplastic research in the environment, including their sources, fate, and effects over the last decade. 

Micro(nano)plastics sources, fate, and effects: what we know after ten years of research

A critical review on microplastics, interaction with organic and inorganic pollutants, impacts and effectiveness of advanced oxidation processes applied for their removal from aqueous matrices

Uncovering the release of micro/nanoplastics from disposable face masks at times of COVID-19.

• MNPs cannot be avoided in the cycle of life as they are found in all survival resources. • Irrespective of the types or sources, micro & nanoplastics are dangerous pollutants. • Their deleterious impacts are linked to their nature: small size, featherweight, and durability. • Unknown MNPs persist in biomarkers of various organisms and ecosystems. • The available technologies for detecting and removing MNPs from the environment are inefficient. The prevalence of micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) across the various environments and their negative impact on ecosystems have become a serious global threat and are currently a subject of many environmental concerns. Studies have provided evidence that MNPs have the potential to leach toxic plastic chemical additives and can adsorb a variety of persistent organic environmental pollutants, thereby enhancing their bioavailability, toxicity, and dispersion. Moreover, these MNPs easily penetrate the food chain and might cause health problems when ingested by humans and other organisms. Currently, there is complexity in understanding the mechanisms by which these toxic chemicals adsorb/desorb onto/from MNPs, and the physical and biological impacts of these chemical additives. To date, there is a considerable lack of knowledge on the major chemical additives of concern used in the plastic industry, their fate once MNPs dispose into the environment, the factors that affect their degradation, and their consequent impacts on human health. This review critically analyzes the current knowledge concerning the physical, chemical, and biological impacts of MNPs, and the various chemical and organic pollutants associated with MNPs. Emphasis was laid on their types, occurrence, fate, and distribution in the environment. The different techniques used in their identification, characterization, and removal were also elucidated. Furthermore, the consequent harmful effects of MNPs on human health were discussed to spur more future studies and fill knowledge gaps in this area. 

Toxic Chemicals and Persistent Organic Pollutants Associated with Micro-and Nanoplastics Pollution

Microplastics in seawater and zooplankton: A case study from Terengganu estuary and offshore waters, Malaysia.

Measuring particle size distribution and mass concentration of nanoplastics and microplastics: addressing some analytical challenges in the sub-micron size range

The T cell Immunological Synapse (IS) is a pivotal hub for the regulation of adaptive immunity by endowing the exchange of information between cells engaged in physical contacts. Beyond the integration of antigen (signal one), co-stimulation (signal two), and cytokines (signal three), the IS facilitates the delivery of T-cell effector assemblies including supramolecular attack particles (SMAPs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs). How these particulate outputs differ among T -cell subsets and how subcellular compartments and signals exchanged at the synapse contribute to their composition is not fully understood. Here we harnessed bead-supported lipid bilayers (BSLBs) as a tailorable and versatile technology for the study of synaptic particle biogenesis and composition in different T-cell subsets, including CART. These synthetic antigen-presenting cells (APCs) facilitated the characterisation of trans-synaptic vesicles (tSV) as a heterogeneous population of EVs comprising among others PM-derived synaptic ectosomes and CD63+ exosomes. We harnessed BSLB to unveil the factors influencing the vesicular release of CD40L, as a model effector, identifying CD40 trans presentation, T-cell activation, ESCRT upregulation/recruitment, antigen density/potency, co-repression by PD-1 ligands, and its processing by ADAM10 as major determinants. Further, BSLB made possible the comparison of microRNA (miR) species associated with tSV and steadily released EVs. Altogether, our data provide evidence for a higher specialisation of tSV which are enriched not only in effector immune receptors but also in miR and RNA-binding proteins. Considering the molecular uniqueness and functional complexity of the tSV output, which is also accompanied by SMAPs, we propose their classification as signal four. Graphical abstract Highlights Bead Supported Lipid Bilayers (BSLB) reconstituting antigen-presenting cells support synapse assembly by T cells and the release of effector particles. BSLB facilitate the dissection of the cellular machineries and synapse composition shaping the released tSV. tSV and their steadily released counterparts have a different composition. TSV show a higher enrichment of effectors including immune receptors, miR, RNA- and other nucleic acid-binding proteins, than EVs.

/pdf/synthetic-antigen-presenting-cells-reveal-the-diversity-and-47ka38myq2.pdf

Synthetic Antigen Presenting cells reveal the diversity and functional specialisation of extracellular vesicles composing the fourth signal of T cell immunological synapses

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Measuring particle size distribution and mass concentration of nanoplastics and microplastics: addressing some analytical challenges in the sub-micron size range

Synthetic Antigen Presenting cells reveal the diversity and functional specialisation of extracellular vesicles composing the fourth signal of T cell immunological synapses