Plants often experience unfavorable conditions during their life cycle that impact their growth and sometimes their survival. A temporary phase of such stress, which can result from heavy metals, drought, salinity, or extremes of temperature or pH, can cause mild to enormous damage to the plant depending on its duration and intensity. Besides environmental stress, plants are the target of many microbial pathogens, causing diseases of varying severity. In plants that harbor mutualistic bacteria, stress can affect the symbiotic interaction and its outcome. To achieve the full potential of a symbiotic relationship between the host and rhizobia, it is important that the host plant maintains good growth characteristics and stay healthy under challenging environmental conditions. The host plant cannot provide good accommodation for the symbiont if it is infested with diseases and prone to other predators. Because the bacterium relies on metabolites for survival and multiplication, it is in its best interests to keep the host plant as stress-free as possible and to keep the supply stable. Although plants have developed many mitigation strategies to cope with stress, the symbiotic bacterium has developed the capability to augment the plant’s defense mechanisms against environmental stress. They also provide the host with protection against certain diseases. The protective features of rhizobial–host interaction along with nitrogen fixation appear to have played a significant role in legume diversification. When considering a legume–rhizobial symbiosis, extra benefits to the host are sometimes overlooked in favor of the symbionts’ nitrogen fixation efficiency. This review examines all of those additional considerations of a symbiotic interaction that enable the host to withstand a wide range of stresses, enabling plant survival under hostile regimes. In addition, the review focuses on the rhizosphere microbiome, which has emerged as a strong pillar of evolutionary reserve to equip the symbiotic interaction in the interests of both the rhizobia and host. The evaluation would draw the researchers’ attention to the symbiotic relationship as being advantageous to the host plant as a whole and the role it plays in the plant’s adaptation to unfavorable environmental conditions.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/11/6/1454/pdf?version=1685511352

Evaluation of Legume–Rhizobial Symbiotic Interactions Beyond Nitrogen Fixation That Help the Host Survival and Diversification in Hostile Environments

Chromium contamination in soil and water bodies is increasing predominantly due to inappropriate discharge from industries, and it is causing severe environmental problems and soil infertility. To improve soil quality, the sustainable approach needs to identify specific microbes capable of reducing chromium toxicity, enhancing soil P pool and expressing multiple plant growth-promoting activities. In the current investigation, a microbial strain OS2 was recuperated from polluted soil and was characterized by employing biochemical and molecular methods. Bacterial strain OS2 was identified as Achromobacter xylosoxidans by 16S rRNA quality sequencing, BLASTn, and phylogenetic examination. Strain OS2 survived well at high doses of heavy metals: Cr, Ni, Cu and Zn. A. xylosoxidans could solubilize up to 363 µg mL−1 tricalcium phosphate and reduced 100 µg mL−1 chromium after 24-h incubation. SEM and EDX analyses showed the highest accumulation of phosphate and binding with chromium up to 10.22 and 1.09 weight percent of total weight, respectively. A. xylosoxidans significantly produced IAA (26 µg mL−1) when grown up within 100 µg mL−1 chromium, as detected by HPLC. Further, strain OS2, when used as a microbial inoculant, decontaminated the chromium and concurrently improved the growth of mung bean plants while growing under metal stress conditions significantly in a sustainable manner.

Chromium-reducing and phosphate-solubilizing Achromobacter xylosoxidans bacteria from the heavy metal-contaminated soil of the Brass city, Moradabad, India

Rhizobia have the ability to increase growth of non-legume plants due to the production of phytohormones and protection of plant from diseases and pathogens. However, the practical use of these beneficial bacteria sometimes fails because of their inability to effectively colonize rhizoplane and rhizosphere of inoculated plants. We chose the legume lectins as a factor that allows plants to form associative symbiosis with rhizobia. To test the fact that transgenic tobacco, tomato and rape roots with pea lectin gene may affect specific interaction with rhizobia, transgenic roots have been artificially inoculated by fluorescently-labeled pea rhizobia R. leguminosarum and east galega rhizobia Rhizobium galega. Microscopic and microbiological tests have shown that the number of adhered R. leguminosarum onto tobacco, rape and tomato roots which transformed with pea lectin gene is higher in comparison with the control, but no such effect through inoculation of these plants with R. galegae has been found. This confirms the interaction of R. leguminosarum with pea lectin at the surface of transformed roots. Undoubtedly, the improvement of recognition and attachment processes by using lectins can lead to the achievement of a stable associative relationship between non-symbiotic plants and rhizobia.

Artificial colonization of non-symbiotic plants roots with the use of lectins

Introduction. Plants synthesize a vast amount of protein molecules, which participate in different processes in the course of its life cycle. Lectins and lectin-like proteins, which form a separate group, were isolated from different organs and tissues of plants [1]. Lectins are predominantly glycoproteins of nonimmune origin, capable both of binding carbohydrates and compounds containing carbohydrates with high specificity and of agglutinating erythrocytes [2]. Normally [a] lectin molecule contains several similar or different subunits [2], although there are monomeric lectins [3]. One of the most important properties of hemagglutinating proteins is their capacity to interact with carbohydrate ligands, thus revealing considerable specificity [1, 2]. The lectins of plants differ in carbohydrate specificity [2] and are able to interact with several monoand oligosaccharides with different degree of activity [4]. Agglutinating proteins may have the highest affinity to complex oligosaccharides and compounds containing carbohydrates if compared to monosaccharides and simple oligosaccharides [3]. Some amino acid residues in the active center of carbohydrate-binding site of the lectin play a significant role in binding to monosaccharides [5], while others are involved in the interaction of the protein molecule with complex carbohydrate compounds, thus enhancing its affinity [6, 7]. Besides the carbohydrate site, the agglutinins may contain sites, by which they interact with adenine and phytohormones – adenine derivatives [8], as well as with other molecules, some amino acids, in particular [9]. Phytolectins are capable of agglutinating erythrocytes of humans and different animals, but some of them predominantly bind erythrocytes of a specific kind [2]. It was demonstrated that some lectins also show a catalytic activity, for instance, agglutinin of Dolichos biflorus seeds has lipoxygenase activity [10]. In addition to so called classic lectins, plants also synthesize lectin-like proteins, arcelin and -amylase inhibitor [11], in particular, which are capable of interacting with carbohydrates and have some homology to the known lectins. The authors of [12] considering all plant proteins with at least one non-catalytic domain, suggested that reversibly binding specific monoor ISSN 0233–7657. Biopolymers and Cell. 2012. Vol. 28. N 3. P. 171–180 Translated from Ukrainian

/pdf/role-of-phytolectin-in-the-life-cycle-of-plants-3iqbk3g0j0.pdf

Role of phytolectin in the life cycle of plants

Lectins, in particular from plants, are proteins of non-immune origin that are able to bind carbohydrates with high specificity. Due to their properties, phytolectins are of great interest in practical applications. They were shown to play an important role in forming strategies for treatment of disease including cancer and HIV. Plant lectins are an important tool in glycomic studies. Plant lectins with fungicidal and insecticidal activities are used in transgenic technologies to increase plant resistance to pests and phytopathogens. The introduction of lectinlike kinases genes into plant genome was shown to be perspective way to protect plants against environmental stresses and regulate plant growth. Engineering of phytolectins allows obtaining molecules with known carbohydrate specificity that can be applied in various areas. The studies are underway with the aim of design of lectin-based drug delivery systems as well as the pharmaceutical drugs containing plant lectins. Because of the ability of phytolectins to bind to different substances they can be more widely used in the future. The review focuses on current data and future possibilities in the application of plant lectins.

/pdf/the-areas-of-application-for-plant-lectins-1lf5k6m38v.pdf

The areas of application for plant lectins

RAPD and RFEL analyses revealed appreciable genetic heterogeneity of Rhizobium galegae bv. officinalis and R. galegae bv. orientalis, which are nitrogen-fixing symbiosis partners of Galega officinalis and G. orientalis, respectively, and do not form a single cross-inoculation group. Comparison of nucleotide and amino acid sequences for their lectins revealed relatively high general homology, testifying again to their close phylogenetic relationships. Yet the lectin region of the carbohydrate-binding peptide (CBP) proved to differ considerably, being TYCNPGWDPRDR in G. orientalis and TFYNEEWDLVIKDEH in G. officinalis. Conserved positions in the CBP were observed for amino acid residues involved in binding Ca2+ and Mn2+ and stabilizing the spatial structure of the carbohydrate-binding pocket. These findings confirm the role in Rhizobium— legume symbiosis for lectins and especially for their carbohydrate-binding domains.

Structures of sugar-binding peptides of Galega orientalis and G. officinalis lectins determine the choice of partner in rhizobium—Legume symbiosis

Screening of nodule bacteria (rhizobia) forming symbiotic relationships with legumes has been performed in order to isolate strains resistant to cadmium ions in a wide range of concentrations (6-132 mg/kg). The effect ofcadmium salts (6, 12, 24 mg/kg) on the legume-rhizobium symbiosis ofthe pea Pisum sativum L. with Rhizobium leguminosarum and of the fodder galega Galega orientalis Lam. with Rhizobium galegae has been studied under experimental laboratory conditions. No statistically significant differences have been revealed in the growth and biomass of plants with regard to the control in the range of concentrations given above. However, it was found that cadmium inhibited nodulation in P. sativum and stimulated it in G. orientalis.

[The Effect of Cadmium on the Efficiency of Development of Legume-Rhizobium Symbiosis].

Transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. plants, cv. Samsun) bearing the gene for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) leghemoglobin A under the control of 35S CaMV promoter were produced. The effects of this gene expression on tobacco growth and respiration, MDA content, and also activities of catalase and guaicol peroxidase were studied. The growth rate of transformed plant was reduced, respiratory losses were increased, and lipid peroxidation was substantially suppressed. In plants expressing the laghemoglobin A gene, the negative effects of toxic cadmium concentrations on growth parameters and plant oxidative status were weakened.

Effect of leghemoglobin A gene expression from soybean on tobacco plant growth and antioxidant state under damaging action of cadmium

Construction of chimeric lectins with new sugar-binding properties.

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Structures of sugar-binding peptides of Galega orientalis and G. officinalis lectins determine the choice of partner in rhizobium—Legume symbiosis

[The Effect of Cadmium on the Efficiency of Development of Legume-Rhizobium Symbiosis].

Effect of leghemoglobin A gene expression from soybean on tobacco plant growth and antioxidant state under damaging action of cadmium

Construction of chimeric lectins with new sugar-binding properties.