Concerning the mechanism of trigeminal neuralgia and hemifacial spasm.

We review the evolution of human bipedal locomotion with a particular emphasis on the evolution of the foot. We begin in the early twentieth century and focus particularly on hypotheses of an ape-like ancestor for humans and human bipedal locomotion put forward by a succession of Gregory, Keith, Morton and Schultz. We give consideration to Morton's (1935) synthesis of foot evolution, in which he argues that the foot of the common ancestor of modern humans and the African apes would be intermediate between the foot of Pan and Hylobates whereas the foot of a hypothetical early hominin would be intermediate between that of a gorilla and a modern human. From this base rooted in comparative anatomy of living primates we trace changing ideas about the evolution of human bipedalism as increasing amounts of postcranial fossil material were discovered. Attention is given to the work of John Napier and John Robinson who were pioneers in the interpretation of Plio-Pleistocene hominin skeletons in the 1960s. This is the period when the wealth of evidence from the southern African australopithecine sites was beginning to be appreciated and Olduvai Gorge was revealing its first evidence for Homo habilis. In more recent years, the discovery of the Laetoli footprint trail, the AL 288-1 (A. afarensis) skeleton, the wealth of postcranial material from Koobi Fora, the Nariokotome Homo ergaster skeleton, Little Foot (Stw 573) from Sterkfontein in South Africa, and more recently tantalizing material assigned to the new and very early taxa Orrorin tugenensis, Ardipithecus ramidus and Sahelanthropus tchadensis has fuelled debate and speculation. The varying interpretations based on this material, together with changing theoretical insights and analytical approaches, is discussed and assessed in the context of new three-dimensional morphometric analyses of australopithecine and Homo foot bones, suggesting that there may have been greater diversity in human bipedalism in the earlier phases of our evolutionary history than previously suspected.

https://evolution.binghamton.edu/evos/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Harcourt-Smith-Aiello-2004.pdf

Fossils, feet and the evolution of human bipedal locomotion.

Some of the most long-standing questions in paleoanthropology concern how and why human bipedalism evolved. Over the last century, many hypotheses have been offered on the mode of locomotion from which bipedalism originated. Candidate ancestral adaptations include monkey-like arboreal or terrestrial quadrupedalism, gibbon- or orangutan-like (or other forms of) climbing and suspension, and knuckle-walking. This paper reviews the history of these hypotheses, outlines their predictions, and assesses them in light of current phylogenetic, comparative anatomical, and fossil evidence. The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle-walking and arboreal climbing. Future fossil discoveries, and a clear understanding of anthropoid locomotor anatomy, are required to ultimately test these hypotheses. If knuckle-walking was an important component of the behavioral repertoire of the prebipedal human ancestor, then we can reject scenarios on the origin of bipedalism that rely on a strictly arboreal ancestor. Moreover, paleoenvironmental data associated with the earliest hominins, and their close relatives, contradict hypotheses that place the agents of selection for bipedality in open savanna habitats. Existing hypotheses must explain why bipedalism would evolve from an ancestor that was already partly terrestrial. Many food acquisition and carrying hypotheses remain tenable in light of current evidence.

/pdf/origin-of-human-bipedalism-the-knuckle-walking-hypothesis-4wdkx76su3.pdf

Origin of human bipedalism: The knuckle-walking hypothesis revisited.

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Comparative biology and evolutionary relationships of tree shrews

With a few exceptions, students of primate evolution have always agreed that the Madagascar lemurs are more closely related to the lorises and galagos than any other living primates. During the 19th century, all these strepsirhine prosimians were usually lumped together as “lemurs,” and some workers (e.g., Gray, 1870; Forbes, 1896) erected subfamilies and tribes that mixed Malagasy and African prosimians together in what now seems a haphazard and undiscriminating fashion. Most recent workers have followed Gregory (1915) in distinguishing a loris-galago group (Lorisiformes) from the Madagascar lemurs (Lemuriformes), denying that any member of either group has special affinities with any or all members of the other.

Strepsirhine Basicranial Structures and the Affinities of the Cheirogaleidae

EARLY in 1918, Prof. F. Wood Jones gave a popular lecture in King's College, London, on man's origin. This lecture, when published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge under the title “The Problem of Man's Ancestry”, met with a mixed reception. Anatomists treated it with neglect or contempt; those of an anti-Darwinian bias hailed it with delight. As the little book of 1918 is really the parent of the large work which has just appeared under the title “Man's Place among the Mammals”, it is worth while to seek for an explanation of the diversity of feeling evoked by the original publication. The antagonistic attitude of most anatomists is understandable. They were told that man, far from being as they thought the most changed, the most specialised, the most highly evolved of all primate animals, was, when his structural characters were rightly analysed, essentially a very ancient and primitive type. They learned that they had laboured in vain, because in construing the evidence relating to man's origin they had been dominated by a heresy for which Darwin, Huxley, and Haeckel were conjointly responsible, namely, that there had been an anthropoidal stage in man's evolution. Prof. Wood Jones summarily dismissed the anthropoids living and extinct at no time had they any lot or part in man's ancestry. Man's Place among the Mammals. By Prof. Frederic Wood Jones. Pp. xi + 372 + 12 plates. (London: Edward Arnold and Co., 1929.) 21s. net.

Man's Place among the Mammals

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Man's Place among the Mammals