Males and females of nearly all animals differ in their body size, a phenomenon called sexual size dimorphism (SSD). The degree and direction of SSD vary considerably among taxa, including among populations within species. A considerable amount of this variation is due to sex differences in body size plasticity. We examine how variation in these sex differences is generated by exploring sex differences in plasticity in growth rate and development time and the physiological regulation of these differences (e.g., sex differences in regulation by the endocrine system). We explore adaptive hypotheses proposed to explain sex differences in plasticity, including those that predict that plasticity will be lowest for traits under strong selection (adaptive canalization) or greatest for traits under strong directional selection (condition dependence), but few studies have tested these hypotheses. Studies that combine proximate and ultimate mechanisms offer great promise for understanding variation in SSD and sex differences in body size plasticity in insects.

/pdf/sex-differences-in-phenotypic-plasticity-affect-variation-in-45cjtz86dd.pdf

Sex differences in phenotypic plasticity affect variation in sexual size dimorphism in insects: from physiology to evolution.

Olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is the major pest of commercial olives worldwide. Various aspects of its biology, ecology, management, and impact on olive production are highlighted. With the discovery of insecticidal resistance in some populations frequently treated with organophosphates, old and new control options are being investigated. The potential of biological control is examined. Surveys suggest that a small group of braconids in the Opiinae subfamily best represent the primary parasitoids attacking olive fruit fly in its native range. These species include Psyttalia lounsburyi, P. dacicida, P. concolor, P. ponerophaga, and Utetes africanus. Bracon celer, another braconid but in the Braconinae subfamily, is also reared from the fruit fly in its native range. The potential of these and other natural enemies is discussed with respect to olive fruit fly biology, commercial olive production, and biological constraints that may limit their success. We suggest that numerous species exist that should be further investigated as control agents for olive fruit fly in the many climatic regimes where the pest is found.

Olive Fruit Fly: Managing an Ancient Pest in Modern Times

Olive fruit fly is a key pest of olive and consequently a serious threat to olive fruit and oil production throughout the Mediterranean region. With the establishment of Bactrocera oleae in California a decade ago, interest was renewed in classical (introduction) biological control of the pest. Here we discuss the prospects of identifying natural enemies of B. oleae in Africa and Asia that may help reduce B. oleae populations in California and elsewhere. Based on the current understanding of Bactrocera phylogenetics, early opinions that B. oleae originated in Africa or western Asia rather than the Mediterranean region or the Near East are taxonomically and ecologically supportable. Closely related to cultivated olive, the wild olive Olea europaea cuspidata is widely distributed in southern and eastern Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and eastwards into Asia as far as southwestern China. Little is known regarding the biology and ecology of B. oleae in Africa and eastern Asia, especially in wild oliv...

Prospects for improving biological control of olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae), with introduced parasitoids (Hymenoptera)

The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), is a newly invasive, significant threat to California's olive industry. As part of a classical biological control programme, Psyttalia ponerophaga (Silvestri) was imported to California from Pakistan and evaluated in quarantine. Biological parameters that would improve rearing and field-release protocols and permit comparisons to other olive fruit fly biological control agents were measured. Potential barriers to the successful establishment of P. ponerophaga, including the geographic origins of parasitoid and pest populations and constraints imposed by fruit size, were also evaluated as part of this investigation. Under insectary conditions, all larval stages except neonates were acceptable hosts. Provided a choice of host ages, the parasitoids' host-searching and oviposition preferences were a positive function of host age, with most offspring reared from hosts attacked as third instars. Immature developmental time was a negative function of tested temperatures, ranging from 25.5 to 12.4 days at 22 and 30°C, respectively. Evaluation of adult longevity, at constant temperatures ranging from 15 to 34°C, showed that P. ponerophaga had a broad tolerance of temperature, living from 3 to 34 days at 34 and 15°C, respectively. Lifetime fecundity was 18.7±2.8 adult offspring per female, with most eggs deposited within 12 days after adult eclosion. Olive size affected parasitoid performance, with lower parasitism levels on hosts feeding in larger olives. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to field manipulation and selection of parasitoid species for olive fruit fly biological control in California and worldwide.

http://www2.hawaii.edu/~messing/papers/Sime%20Ponerophaga07.pdf

Psyttalia ponerophaga (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as a potential biological control agent of olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae) in California.

This chapter is a demonstration of the wealth of African natural resources and their contribution to biological control of tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). Africa is the native region of more than 900 species of fruit flies, many of which are significant agricultural pests. Highly diverse assemblages of indigenous hymenopteran parasitoid species have evolved with these fruit flies, which makes Africa a valuable source of parasitoids for use in classical biological control of fruit flies around the world. Interest in the use of parasitoids for biological control has recently increased due to advances in mass rearing techniques for exotic and native parasitoid species alongside the need to reduce synthetic insecticide use. Here we review the diversity of indigenous African parasitoid species and their role in classical biological control of fruit flies in other parts of the world; we also discuss their contribution to the management of native fruit flies in Africa. Likewise, the prospects and potential for using exotic parasitoids for management of newly-established invasive fruit flies in Africa is discussed, particularly for Batrocera zonata (Saunders), Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) and Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett). We cover the introduction and spread of exotic parasitoid species released in Africa for biological control of invasive fruit flies. The rich diversity of indigenous parasitoids of African fruit flies continues to be unraveled as more new species are discovered and recognized as potential biological control agents for fruit fly management.

In and Out of Africa: Parasitoids Used for Biological Control of Fruit Flies

A recent record of parasitoids on common olive pests in Egypt.

Survey and seasonal abundance of the parasitoids of the olive fruit fly, Bacterocera (Dacus) oleae Gmel. (Diptera: Trypetidae) in Egypt.

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A recent record of parasitoids on common olive pests in Egypt.

Survey and seasonal abundance of the parasitoids of the olive fruit fly, Bacterocera (Dacus) oleae Gmel. (Diptera: Trypetidae) in Egypt.