Since the first application of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phenomenon for sensing almost two decades ago, this method has made great strides both in terms of instrumentation development and applications. SPR sensor technology has been commercialized and SPR biosensors have become a central tool for characterizing and quantifying biomolecular interactions. This paper attempts to review the major developments in SPR technology. Main application areas are outlined and examples of applications of SPR sensor technology are presented. Future prospects of SPR sensor technology are discussed.

Surface plasmon resonance sensors: review

Nano-optics of surface plasmon polaritons

The emerging field of nanophotonics1 addresses the critical challenge of manipulating light on scales much smaller than the wavelength. However, very few feasible practical approaches exist at present. Surface plasmon polaritons2,3 are among the most promising candidates for subwavelength optical confinement3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. However, studies of long-range surface plasmon polaritons have only demonstrated optical confinement comparable to that of conventional dielectric waveguides, because of practical issues including optical losses and stringent fabrication demands3,11,12,13. Here, we propose a new approach that integrates dielectric waveguiding with plasmonics. The hybrid optical waveguide consists of a dielectric nanowire separated from a metal surface by a nanoscale dielectric gap. The coupling between the plasmonic and waveguide modes across the gap enables ‘capacitor-like’ energy storage that allows effective subwavelength transmission in non-metallic regions. In this way, surface plasmon polaritons can travel over large distances (40–150 µm) with strong mode confinement (ranging from λ2/400 to λ2/40). This approach is fully compatible with semiconductor fabrication techniques and could lead to truly nanoscale semiconductor-based plasmonics and photonics. Xiang Zhang and colleagues from the University of California, Berkeley, propose a new approach for confining light on scales much smaller than the wavelength of light. Using hybrid waveguides that incorporate dielectric and plasmonic waveguiding techniques, they are able to confine surface plasmon polaritons very strongly over large distances. The advance could lead to truly nanoscale plasmonics and photonics.

/pdf/a-hybrid-plasmonic-waveguide-for-subwavelength-confinement-3aah5h2zn4.pdf

A hybrid plasmonic waveguide for subwavelength confinement and long-range propagation

The emergence of artificially designed subwavelength electromagnetic materials, denoted metamaterials, has significantly broadened the range of material responses found in nature. However, the acoustic analogue to electromagnetic metamaterials has, so far, not been investigated. We report a new class of ultrasonic metamaterials consisting of an array of subwavelength Helmholtz resonators with designed acoustic inductance and capacitance. These materials have an effective dynamic modulus with negative values near the resonance frequency. As a result, these ultrasonic metamaterials can convey acoustic waves with a group velocity antiparallel to phase velocity, as observed experimentally. On the basis of homogenized-media theory, we calculated the dispersion and transmission, which agrees well with experiments near 30 kHz. As the negative dynamic modulus leads to a richness of surface states with very large wavevectors, this new class of acoustic metamaterials may offer interesting applications, such as acoustic negative refraction and superlensing below the diffraction limit.

Ultrasonic metamaterials with negative modulus

We examine whether single molecule sensitivity in surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) can be explained in the framework of classical electromagnetic theory. The influence of colloid particle shape and size, composition (Ag or Au) and interparticle separation distance on the wavelength-dependent SERS enhancement factor is reported. Our calculations indicate that the maximum enhancement factor achievable through electromagnetics is of the order 10(11). This is obtained only under special circumstances, namely at interstitial sites between particles and at locations outside sharp surface protrusions. The comparative rarity of such sites, together with the extreme spatial localization of the enhancement they provide, can qualitatively explain why only very few surface sites seem to contribute to the measured signal in single-molecule SERS experiments. Enhancement factors of the order 10(14)-10(15), which have been reported in recent experiments, are likely to involve additional enhancement mechanisms such as chemisorption induced resonance Raman effects.

/pdf/electromagnetic-contributions-to-single-molecule-sensitivity-3dmewvz895.pdf

Electromagnetic contributions to single-molecule sensitivity in surface-enhanced Raman scattering

Electromagnetic surface modes

Preface. Spatial solitons in modulated magnetooptic waveguides A.D. Boardman, M. Xie. Experiments on Quadratic Solitons G.I. Stegeman. Spatial Solitons in Liquid Crystals M.A. Karpierz. Magnetic Solitons. On the Problem of Generation N.V. Ostrovskaia. Nonlinear Photon Statistics of Pulse Amplification in Optical Fiber Amplifiers G. Kahraman. Evolution of Concentrated Solution of Nonlinear Schrodinger Equations in Regular Non-Uniform Medium Y.N. Cherkashin, V.A. Eremenko. Observation Nonlinear Effects of a Laser Beam Interaction with Waveguide Photosensitive AgCl-Ag Films E.I. Larionova, et al. Features and Applications of chi(s) Vector Spatial Solitons G. Leo, G. Assanto. Soliton Transmission through a Single-Mode Fiber M. Aksoy, M.S. Kilickaya. Nonparaxial Propagation of Parametric Spatial Solitons R. Petruskevicius. Spatial Solitary-Wave Beams in Kerr-Type Planar Optical Waveguides: Nonparaxial Vector Approach K. Marinov, et al. Non-Recurrent Periodic Arrays of Spatial Solitons in a Planar Kerr Waveguide C. Cambournac, et al. Polarization Properties of the Liquid Crystal Fibers A. Szymanska, T.R. Wolinski. Interactions of Solitary Waves in a Photorefractive, Second-Harmonic Generating Medium A.D. Boardman, et al. Analytical Description of Quadratic Parametric Solitons A.A. Sukhorukov. Spatial Solitons in Saturating Nonlinear Optical Materials B. Luther-Davies. Nonparaxial Solitons. Dynamics of Strongly Nonlinear Modes in Inhomogeneous and Non-Stationary Media A.I. Smirnov, A.A. Zharov. Spatial Solitons on Nonlinear Resonators C.O. Weiss, et al. Two-Color Multistep Cascading - Second-Order Cascading with Two Second-Harmonic Generation Processes S. Saltiel, et al. TheDavey-Stewartson Model in Quadratic Media: A Way to Control Pulses H. Leblond. Experiments on Seeded and Noise Initiated Modulational Instability in LiNbO3 Slab Waveguides R.R. Malendevich, et al. Soliton Signal in the Magnetic Chain at the External Magnetic Field near to Critical Value I.A. Molotkov. Observations of Dipole-Mode Vector Solitons C. Weilnau, et al. Spatial Self-Focusing and Intensity Dependent Shift in LiIO3 using Tilted Pulses B. Yellampalle, K.H. Wagner. Round-Trip Model of Quadratic Cavity Soliton Trapping O.A. Egorov, et al. Spatial Solitary Waves and Nonlinear k-Space S.M. Blair. Propagation of Short Optical Pulses in Nonlinear Planar Waveguides -- Pulse Compression and Soliton-Like Solutions M.E. Pietrzyk. Parametric Emission of Radiation and Spatial Solitons Interaction I.V. Shadrivov, A.A. Zharov. Observation of Induced Modulation Instability of an Incoherent Optical Beam Z. Chen, et al. Quadratic Bragg Solitons G. Assanto, et al. Effects of Nonlinearly Induced Inhomogeneity on Solitary Wave Formation K. Marinov, et al. Instability of Fast Kerr Solitons in AlGaAs Waveguides at 1.55 Microns L. Friedrich, et al. Extremely Narrow Quadratic Spatial Solitons A.V. Pimenov, A.P. Sukhorukov. Soliton Propagation in Inhomogeneous Media with Sharp Boundaries V.A. Eremenko, Y.N. Cherkashin. Photorefractive Photovoltaic Spatial Solitons in Slab LiNbO3 Waveguides M. Chauvet, et al. Theory of CW Light Propagation in Three-Core Nonlinear Directional Couplers P. Khadzhi, et al. Two Approaches for Investigation of Soliton Pulse in a Nonlinear Medium I.A. Molotkov, N.I. Manaenkova. Photorefractive Solitons through Second-Harmonic Generation A.D. Boardman, et al. Sh

Soliton-driven photonics

By means of a Green-function, volume-integral-equation approach we study numerically the scattering of a surface plasmon polariton at a planar vacuum-metal interface by dielectric and metallic defects that are either embedded in the metal substrate or are situated in the vacuum region on the substrate. We calculate the transmission and reflection coefficients for the surface plasmon polariton, as well as the efficiency of its conversion into volume electromagnetic waves in the vacuum propagating away from the surface. We also compute the near field in the vicinity of the surface defect.

/pdf/scattering-of-a-surface-plasmon-polariton-by-a-surface-1acqx2505v.pdf

Scattering of a surface plasmon polariton by a surface defect.

A study of nonlinear magnetodynamic waves on magnetic materials is presented. Attention is restricted to an exact theory of electromagnetic waves propagating along the single interface between a linear substrate consisting of a ferromagnetic and a strongly nonlinear magnetic cladding. It is assumed that the cladding consists of an artificial paramagnetic material and that only third-order nonlinearity is operating. It is shown that both TM and TE waves can propagate, with or without a linear limit. Nonreciprocity is found to be strong only in the cases that have linear limits, but the power dependence of this nonreciprocal behavior is quite dramatic and should lead to some applications. Many numerical examples are presented, supported by a detailed mathematical analysis.

Nonlinear magnetodynamic waves on magnetic materials

Surface wave propagation at the interface between different types of gyrotropic materials and an isotropic negatively refracting medium, in which the relative permittivity and relative permeability are, simultaneously, negative is investigated. A general approach is taken that embraces both gyroelectric and gyromagnetic materials, permitting the possibility of operating in either the low GHz, THz or the optical frequency regimes. The classical transverse Voigt configuration is adopted and a complete analysis of non-reciprocal surface wave dispersion is presented. The impact of the surface polariton modes upon the reflection of both plane waves and beams is discussed in terms of resonances and an example of the influence upon the Goos-Hanchen shift is given.

Gyrotropic impact upon negatively refracting surfaces

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